Page 39 (PDF 65)

Birds 39

The Form And Use Of Beaks

Since the bird uses its arms and hands for flying, it has been obliged to develop other organs to take their place, and of their work the beak does its full share. It is well to emphasize this point by letting the children at recess play the game of trying to eat an apple or to put up their books and pencils with their arms tied behind them; such, an experiment will show how naturally the teeth and feet come to the aid when the hands are use- less.

The hen feeds upon seeds and insects which she finds on or in the ground; her beak is horny and sharp and acts not only as a pair of nippers, but also as a pick as she strikes it into the soil to get the seed A. A. Allen A red-eyed vireo repairing her nest or insect. She has already made the place bare by scratching away the grass or sur- face of the soil with her strong, stubby toes. The hen does not have any teeth, nor does she need any, for her sharp beak enables her to seize her food; and she does not need to chew it, since her gizzard does this for her after the food is swal- lowed.

The duck's bill is broad, flat, and much softer than the hen's beak. The duck feeds upon water insects and plants; it obtains these by thrusting its head down into the water, seizing the food, and holding it fast while the water is strained out through the sieve at the edges of the beak; for this use, a wide, flat beak is necessary. It would be quite as impossible for a duck to pick up hard seeds with its broad, soft bill as it would for the hen to get the duck's food Leonard K. Beyer These holes were made by a pileated wood- pecker in search of insects out of the water with her narrow, horny bill.

Both the duck and hen use their bills for cleaning and oiling their feathers and for fighting also; the hen strikes a sharp blow with her beak, making a wound like a dagger, while the duck seizes the enemy and simply pinches hard. Both fowls also use their beaks for turning over the eggs when incubating, and also as an aid to the feet when they make nests for themselves.

The nostrils are very noticeable and are situated in the beak near the base. However, we do not believe that birds have a keen sense of smell, since their nostrils are not surrounded by a damp, sensitive, soft surface as are the nostrils of the deer and dog. This arrangement aids these animals to detect odor in a marvelous manner.

SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Book, by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Life, by

Page 40 (PDF 66)

4° Frank M. Chapman; The Book of Bird Life, by A, A. Allen; The Boole of Birds, edited "by Gilbert Grosvenor and Alex- ander Wetmore; The Children's Book of Birds (First Book of Birds and Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller; Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 3, Plants and Animals.

Lesson 5

The Beak Of A Bird

LEADING THOUGHT — Each kind of bird has a beak especially adapted for getting its food. The beak and feet of a bird are its chief weapons and implements.

METHOD — Study first the beak of the hen or chick and then that of the duckling or gosling. OBSERVATIONS — i . What kind of food does the hen eat and where and how does she find it in the field or garden? How is her beak adapted to get this food? If her beak were soft like that of a duck could she peck so hard for seeds and worms? Has the hen any teeth? Does she need any?

2. Compare the bill of the hen with that of the duck. What are the differences in shape? Which is the harder?

3. Note the saw teeth along the edge of the duck's bill. Are these for chewing? Do they act as a strainer? Why does the duck need to strain its food?

4. Could a duck pick up a hen's food from the earth or the hen strain out a duck's food from the water? For what other things than getting food do these fowls use their bills?

5. Can you see the nostrils in the bill of a hen? Do they show plainer in the duck? Do you think the hen can smell as keenly as the duck?

It is said that nature-study teaching should be accurate, a statement that every good teacher will admit without debate; but accuracy is often interpreted to mean completeness, and then the statement cannot pass unchallenged. To study " the dandelion" " the robin/7 with emphasis on the particle " the/' working out the complete structure, may be good laboratory work in botany or zoology for ad- vanced pupils, but it is not an elementary educational process. It contributes nothing more to accuracy than does the natural order of leaving untouched all those phases of the subject that are out of the child's reach; while it may take out the life and spirit of the work, and the spiritual quality may be the very part that is most worth the while. Other work may provide the formal " drill "; this should supply the quality and vivacity. Teachers often say to me that their children have done excellent work with these complete methods, and they show me the essays and drawings; but this is no proof that the work is com- mendable. Children can be made to do many things that they ought not to do and that lie beyond them. We all need to go to school to children. — " THE OUTLOOK

To Nature/' L. H. Bailey

Weather and wind and waning moon, Plain and hilltop under the sky, Ev'ning, morning and blazing noon, Brother of all the world am 1.

The pine-tree, linden and the maize, The insect, squirrel and the kine, All — natively they live their days — As they live theirs, so I live mine, I know not where, I know not what: — Believing none and doubting none Whatever befalls it counteth not, — Nature and Time and I are one. — L. H. BAILEY

The Feet Of Birds

Obviously, the hen is a digger of the soil; her claws are long, strong, and slightly hooked, and her feet and legs are covered with horny scales. These scales protect her feet from injury when they are used in scratching the hard earth to lay bare the seeds and insects hiding there. The hen is a very good runner indeed. She lifts

Page 41 (PDF 67)

her wings a little to help, much as an athletic runner uses his arms, and so can cover ground with amazing rapidity, her strong toes giving her a firm foothold. The track she makes is very characteristic; it consists of three toe-marks projecting forward and one backward. A bird's toes are numbered thus: the hind toe is number one, the inner toe number two, the mid- dle toe three, and the outer toe four.

Duck's foot and hen's foot with toes numbered A duck has the same number of toes as the hen, but there is a membrane, called the web, which joins the second, third, and fourth toes, making a fan-shaped foot; the first or hind toe has a little web of its own. A webbed foot is first of all a paddle for propelling its owner through the water; it is also a very useful foot on the shores of ponds and streams, since its breadth and flatness prevent it from sink- ing into the soft mud.

The duck's legs are shorter than those of the hen and are placed farther back and wider apart. They are essentially swimming organs and are not fitted for scratching or for running. They are placed at the sides of the bird's body so that they may act as paddles, and are farther back so that they may act like the wheel of a propeller in pushing the bird along. We often laugh at a duck on land, since its short legs are so far apart and so far back that its walk is necessarily an awkward waddle; but we must always remem- ber that the duck is naturally a water bird, and on the water its movements are grace- ful. Think how a hen would appear if she attempted to swim! The duck's body is so poorly balanced on its short legs that it cannot run rapidly; and if chased even a short distance it will fall dead from the effort, as many a country child has dis- covered to his sorrow when he tried to drive the ducks home from the creek or pond to coop. The long hind claw of the hen enables her to clasp a roost firmly during the night; a duck's foot could not do this and the duck sleeps squatting on ^ © General Biological Supply House, Chicago Types oj bills and feet the ground. However, the Muscovy ducks, which are not good swimmers, have been known to perch.

SUGGESTED READING — The Bird Book, by Fannie H. Eckstorm; Bird Life, by Frank M. Chapman; Birds and Their At- tributes, by Glover M. Allen; The Book of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Children's Boole of Birds (First Book of Birds and Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller; Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by Mary G, Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 3, Plants and Animals.

Lesson 6

The Feet Of Birds

LEADING THOUGHT — The feet of birds are shaped so as to assist the bird in getting its food as well as for locomotion.

METHOD — The pupils should have op-

Page 42 (PDF 68)

portunity to observe the chicken or hen and a duck as they move about; they should also observe the duck swimming. OBSERVATIONS — i. Are the toes of the hen long and strong? Have they long, sharp claws at their tips?

2. How are the legs and feet of the hen covered and protected?

3. How are the hen's feet and legs fitted for scratching the earth, and why does she wish to scratch the earth?

4. Can a hen run rapidly? What sort of track does she make?

5. You number your fingers with the thumb as number one and the little finger as five. How do you think the hen's toes are numbered?

6. Has the duck as many toes as the hen? What is the chief difference between the feet of the duck and of the hen?

7. Which of the duck's toes are con- nected by a web? Does the web extend to the tips of the toes? How does the web help the duck?

8. Are the duck's legs as long as the hen's? Are they placed farther forward or farther back than those of the hen? Are they farther apart? 9. Can a duck run as well as a hen? Can the hen swim at all?

10. Where does the hen sleep and how does she hold on to her perch? Could the duck hold on to a perch? Does the duck need to perch while sleeping?

Songs Of Birds

Anyone who attempts to recognize birds by sight alone misses much of the pleasure that comes to those who have ±.Wood Thrushes.

A-. O|ivc -b<w.ke4 Thru*/*. J-.»32.r * •, J&l gy "*' ( Ph.ro $<s) <Cflne*verO taken the time and pains to learn bird songs and use them as a means of bird recognition. It is true that not all people have a talent for music; but anyone in- terested in birds can learn to identify the songs and most of the call notes of com- mon birds.

The observer will notice that in most cases only the male bird sings, but a few exceptions are recorded, notably the fe- male rose-breasted grosbeak and cardinal grosbeak, which sing under some condi- tions. Birds do most of their singing in the early morning and during the spring and early summer months. The male birds have not only a favorite time of day and a particular season of the year during which they do most of their singing, but they even have a certain perch or narrowly defined territory from which they sing.

Each person will need to decide how he can best remember bird songs. Most peo- ple will doubtless use such methods as were used by earlier bird students. Long literary descriptions were given for each song. Alexander Wilson, for instance, de- scribes the call of the male blue jay as " repeated creakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow." Often the call of a particu- lar bird is put into words; in many cases these words have come to be accepted as the common name of the bird, such as bobwhite and whip-poor-will. The imagi- nation of students may suggest certain words to represent the song or call notes of a bird. These are often more easily re- membered than the song itself.

Some ornithologists have developed

Page 43 (PDF 69)

complicated systems of recording bird songs as musical scores. Wilson Flagg and F. S. Mathews are well-known names in this field. Such a method has its limitations because many variations of bird songs cannot be indicated by the characters used in writing music. The song of a bird written as music is not usually recog- nizable when played on a musical instrument. Other ornithologists have developed more graphic methods of recording bird songs. One leader in this field, A. A.

Saunders, has proposed and used a system employing lines, dots? dashes, and sylla- bles. This system is very interesting and is a useful one to a person who has a good ear for music. One of the latest methods of recording bird songs has been developed by the Department of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. By this method bird songs are photographed on moving picture film and later may be recorded on phonograph records; these records can be played over and over again to give the student practice in identifying bird songs. Sound pictures have also been produced; the pictures of the various birds are shown on the screen as their songs are being heard by the audience.

SUGGESTED READING — Bird Friends, by Gilbert H. Trafton; Birds and Their Attributes, by Glover M. Allen; The Boole of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Bool: of Birds, edited by Gilbert Grosvenor and Alexander Wetmore; Field Boot of Wild Birds and Their Music, by F. Schuyler Mathews; A Guide to Bird Songs, by Aretas A. Saunders; Songs of Wild Birds and More Songs of Wild Birds, by Albert R. Brand. ATTRACTING BIRDS If suitable and sufficient food, water, shelter, and nesting sites are provided, and if protection is given from such enemies as cats and thoughtless men, it is possi- ble to attract many kinds of birds to home grounds or gardens. The most logi- cal time to begin to attract birds is during the winter months; but the best time is whenever one is really interested and is willing to provide the things most needed by the birds. Certain types of food, such as suet or sunflower seeds, are sought by birds at any season. During the summer months water for drinking and bathing may be more desired than food, but in the winter almost any seeds, fruits, or fatty foods are welcome. In the spring nesting boxes properly constructed and placed will do much to attract some kinds of birds, especially those that normally nest in holes in trees. An abundance of choice nesting materials will entice orioles, robins, or chipping sparrows to nest near by. Straws, sticks, feathers, cotton, strings, or even hairs from old mattresses may be put out as in- ducements to prospective bird tenants. An invitation to our garden friends to par- take of suet and peanuts in addition to their regular fare The spring is also a good time to plant fruit-bearing trees, shrubs, and vines; these

Page 44 (PDF 70)

A bird bath in the author's garden natural food counters become more attractive each year as they grow larger and pro- duce more fruit and better nesting places for birds.

Autumn is the ideal time to establish feeding centers to which the birds may be attracted during the winter months. Food, such as suet or seeds, should be put at a great many places throughout the area in which one wishes to attract birds. The birds will gradually work their way from one of these feedings points to another; soon it will be possible to concentrate the feeding at one point, and the birds will continue to come to that point as long as food is provided there.

SUGGESTED READING — The A B C of Attracting Birds, by Alvin M. Peterson; Bird Houses Boys Can Build, by Albert F. Siepert; Birds of the Wild — How to Make Your Home Their Home, by Frank C. Pellett; Bird Study for Schools Series, published by the National Association of Audubon Societies (Part III, Winter Feeding, Part IV, Bird Houses); The Boole of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; Boy Bird House Arcliitecfure, by Leon H. Baxter; The Children's Book of Birds (First Book of Birds and Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller; Homes for Birds, by E. R. Kalmbach and W. L. McAtee (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 1456); How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States, How to Attract Birds in Northwestern United States, How to Attract Birds in the Middle Atlantic States, How to Attract Birds in the East Central States, by W. L. McAtee (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins 621, 760, 844, 912); How to Have Bird Neighbors, by S. Louise Patte- son; Our Winter Birds, by Frank M. Chapman; Permanent Bird Houses, by Gladstone Califf; Song-bird Sanctuaries, with Tables of Trees, Shrubs and Vines Attractive to Birds, by Roger T. Peterson; Wild Bird Guests, by Ernest H. Baynes; Methods of Attracting Birds, by Gilbert H. Trafton, Olin Sewall PetthifiiH, Jr. Ruby-throated hummingbird attracted to a vial containing sweetened water

Page 45 (PDF 71)

Birds 45

Value Of Birds

Did you ever try to calculate in dollars the pleasure that you receive from seeing or hearing the first spring migrants? The robin, bluebird, and meadowlark bring cheer to thousands of people every year.

Indeed, it would be difficult to find any- one, except perhaps in large cities, who does not notice the arrival of at least some spring birds — the robins on the lawn, the honk of the wild geese overhead, or the song sparrows as they sing from the top of a shrub. Birds are interesting to most people because of their mere pres- ence, their songs, their colors, or their habits. Persons engaged in nature-study are led outdoors and thus have opened to them many other nature fields.

One needs to observe a bird for only a short time to discover for himself what has been known by scientists for many years, that birds are of great economic importance. Watch a chickadee or nut- hatch as it makes its feeding rounds on a winter day. Note how carefully each tiny branch is covered by the chickadee and what a thorough examination of the limbs and trunks is made by the nuthatch.

Countless insect eggs as well as insects are consumed. On a sunny day in spring, observe the warblers as they feed about the newly opened leaves and blossoms of the trees. See them as they hunt tirelessly for their quota of the tiny insects so small that they are generally overlooked by larger birds. It must be remembered too that some birds do, at times, take a toll of cultivated crops; this is especially true of the seed-eating and insectivorous birds.

But they deserve some pay for the work they do for man, and so in reality he should not begrudge them a little fruit or grain.

Some of the birds of prey are active all the time; the hawks work in the daytime and the owls come on duty for the night shift. Countless destructive small mammals and insects are eaten by them; thus they tend to regulate the numbers of numerous small pests of field and wood, thereby preventing serious outbreaks of such animals. There has been much dis- cussion of the real economic status of hawks and owls; many food studies have been made and the general conclusion is that most species are more useful than harmful. It is true that some species do take a toll of game birds, song birds, and poultry; but they include also in their diet other animal forms, many of which are considered harmful. One individual bird Leonard K. Beyer A red-eyed vireo on her nest. Vireos live largely on insects gleaned jrom the under surfaces of leaves and jrom crevices in bark may be especially destructive and thus give a bad name to an entire species. There are even garbage gatherers among the birds; vultures, gulls, and crows serve in this capacity. The vultures are com- monly found in the warmer parts of the country and serve a most useful purpose by their habit of devouring the unburied bodies of dead animals. The gulls are the scavengers of waterways and shore lines. The crow is omnivorous — that is, it eats both plant and animal food; but it seems to like carrion as well as fresh meat.

The farmer and the gardener owe quite a debt of thanks to the birds that eat weed seeds. Of course there are still bountiful crops of weeds each year; but there would

Page 46 (PDF 72)

Verne Morton A goldfinch nest in winter be even more weeds if it were not for the army of such seed-eating birds as spar- rows, bobwhites? and doves.

The game birds, such as grouse, pheas- ant, and bobwhite are important today, chiefly from the standpoint of the recrea- tion they afford sportsmen and other lovers of the outdoors. The food habits of game birds do not present much of an economic problem; the birds are not nu- merous enough at the present time to be an important source of meat for man as they were in pioneer days. Thus, a brief consideration of a few types of birds will show even a casual observer that birds have economic import- ance and that each species seems to have a definite work to perform.

SUGGESTED READING — Bird Friends, by Gilbert H. Trafton; Birds and Their At- tributes, by Glover M. Allen; Birds in Their Relation to Man, by Clarence M. Weed and Ned Dearborn; The Book of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; The Book of Birds, edited by Gilbert Grosvenor and Alexander Wetmore; The Children's Book of Birds ( First Book of Birds and Second Book of Birds), by Olive Thorne Miller; The Practical Value of Birds, by Junius Henderson.

Lesson 7

The Study Of Birds' Nests In Winter

There are very good reasons for not studying birds' nests in summer, since the birds misinterpret familiarity on the part of eager children and are likely, in consequence, to abandon both nest and lo- cality. But after the birds have gone to sunnier climes and the empty nests are the only mementos we have of them, then we may study these habitations carefully and learn how to appreciate properly the small architects which made them.

I think that every one of us who care- fully examines the way that a nest is made must have a feeling of respect for its clever little builder. I know of certain schools where the children make large collections of these winter nests, properly labeling each, and thus gain a new interest in the bird life of their locality. A nest when collected should be labeled in the following man- ner: The name of the bird which built the nest. Where the nest was found.

If in a tree, what kind?

How high from the ground? After a collection of nests has been made, let the pupils study them accord- ing to the following outline: i. Where was the nest found?

(a) If on the ground, describe the lo- cality.

(b) If on a plant, tree, or shrub, tell the species, if possible.

(c) If on a tree, tell where it was on a branch — in a fork, or hanging by the end of the twigs.

l Leonard K. Beyer A homemade wren house and its occupant

Page 47 (PDF 73)

(d) How high from the ground, and what was the locality?

(e) If on or in a building, how situ- ated?

2. Did the nest have any arrangement to protect it from rain?

3. Give the size of the nest, the diameter of the inside and the outside; also the depth of the inside.

4. What is the form of the nest? Are its sides flaring or straight? Is the nest shaped like a cup, basket, or pocket?

5. What materials compose the outside of the nest and how are they ar- ranged?

6. Of what materials is the lining made, and how are they arranged? If hair or feathers are used, on what creature did they grow? 7. How are the materials of the nest held together, that is, are they woven, plastered, or held in place by environ- ment?

8. Had the nest anything peculiar about it either in situation, construction, or material that would tend to render it invisible to the casual glance?

SUGGESTED READING — The Book of Bird Life, by A. A. Allen; Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by Maw G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 3", Plants and Animals; Ornithology Laboratory Notebook, by A. A. Allen; A Year in the Won- derland of Birds, by Hallam Hawksworth. Chicks, a few days old II, S. Department of Agriculture CHICKEN WAYS Darne Nature certainly pays close at- tention to details. An instance of this is the little tooth on the tip of the upper mandible of the young chick, which aids it in breaking out of its egg-shell prison; since a tooth in this particular place is of no use later, it disappears. The chil- dren are delighted with the beauty of a fluffy little chick with its bright, question- ing eyes and its life of activity as soon as it is freed from the shell. What a contrast to the blind, bare, scrawny young robin, which seems to be all mouth! The differ- ence between the two is fundamental since it gives a means for distinguishing ground birds from perching birds. The young partridge, quail, turkey, and chick are clothed and active and ready to go with the mother in search of food as soon as they are hatched; while the young of

Page 48 (PDF 74)

An anxious stepmother. The ducklings 'pay her little heed the perching birds are naked and blind, being kept warm by the brooding mother, and fed and nourished by food brought by their parents, until they are large enough to leave the nest. The down which covers the young chick differs from the feathers which come later; the down has no quill but consists of several flossy threads coming from the same root; later on, this down is pushed out and off by the true feathers which grow from the same sockets. The pupils should see that the down is so soft that the little, fluffy wings of the chick are useless until the real wing feathers appear.

We chew food until it is soft and fine, then swallow it, but the chick swallows it whole; after being softened by juices from the stomach the food passes into a little mill, in which is gravel that the chicken has swallowed. This gravel helps to grind up the food. This mill is called the gizzard and the pupils should be taught to look carefully at this organ the next time they have chicken for dinner. A chicken has no muscles in the throat, like ours, to en- able it to swallow water as we do. Thus, it has first to fill its beak with water, then hold it up so the water will flow down the throat. As long as the little chick has its mother's wings to sleep under, it does not need to put its head under its own wing; but when it grows up and spends the night upon a roost, it usually tucks its head under its wing while sleeping.

The conversation of the barnyard fowl covers many elemental emotions and is easily comprehended. It is well for the children to understand from the first that the notes of birds mean something defi- nite. The hen clucks when she is leading her chicks afield so that they will know where she is in the tall grass; the chicks follow " cheeping " or " peeping/7 as the children say, so that she will know where they are; but if a chick feels itself lost its " peep " becomes loud and dis- consolate; on the other hand, there is no sound in the world so full of cosy con- tentment as the low notes of the chick when it cuddles under the mother's wing. When a hen finds a bit of food she utters rapid notes which call the chicks in a hurry, and when she sees a hawk she gives a warning " q-r-r " which makes every chick run for cover and keep quiet. When hens are taking their sun and dust baths together, they seem to gossip and we can almost hear them saying, " Didn't you think Madam Dorking made a great fuss over her egg today? " Or, " That over- grown young rooster has got a crow to match his legs, hasn't he? " Contrast these low tones with the song of the hen as she issues forth in the first warm days Poultry Dept., N. Y. State College of Agriculture White leghorns are prolific layers

Page 49 (PDF 75)

of spring and gives to the world one of the most joyous songs of all nature. There is quite a different quality in the triumphant cackle of a hen telling to the world that she has laid an egg and the cackle which comes from heing startled. When a hen is sitting or is not allowed to sit, she is nervous and irritable, and voices her mental state by scolding. When she is really afraid, she squalls; and when seized by an enemy, she utters long, horrible squawks. The rooster crows to assure his flock that all is well; he also crows to show other roosters what he thinks of himself and of them. The rooster also has other notes; he will question you as you ap- proach him and his flock, and he will give a warning note when he sees a hawk; when he finds some dainty tidbit, he calls his flock of hens to him and they usually arrive just in time to see him swallow the morsel.

When roosters fight, they confront each other with their heads lowered and then try to seize each other by the back of the neck with their beaks, or strike each other with the wing spurs, or tear with the leg spurs. Weasels, skunks, rats, hawks, and crows are the most common enemies of the fowls, and often a rooster will attack one of these invaders and fight valiantly; the hen also will fight if her brood is dis- turbed.

SUGGESTED READING — Farm Animals, by James G. Lawson; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 3, Surprises; The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock.

Lesson 8

Chicken Ways

LEADING THOUGHT — Chickens have interesting habits of life and extensive conversational powers. METHOD — For this lesson it is necessary that the pupils observe the inhabit- ants of the poultry yard and answer these questions a few at a time.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Did the chick get out of the egg by its own efforts? Of what use is the little tooth which is on the tip

Does of the this upper remain? part of a young chick's beak?

2. What is the difference between the down of the chick and the feathers of the hen? The little chick has wings; why can it not fly?

3. Why is the chick just hatched so pretty and downy, while the young robin is so bare and ugly? Why is the young is chick blind? able to see while the young 'robin 4. How does the young chick get its food?

5. Does the chick chew its food be- fore swallowing? If not, why?

6. How does the chick drink? Why does it drink this way?

7. Where does the chick sleep at night? Where will it sleep when it is grown up? 8. Where does the hen usually put her head when she is sleeping?

9. How does the hen call her chicks when she is with them in the field?

10. How does she call them to food? 11. How does she tell them there is a hawk in sight?

12. What notes does the chick make when it is following its mother? When it wing? gets lost? When it cuddles under her 13. What does the hen say when she has laid an egg? When she is frightened?

Parts of the bird labeled This figure may be placed on the blackboard wher/j pupils may consult it when studying colors and markings of birds.

Page 50 (PDF 76)

5° When she is disturbed while sitting on eggs? When she is grasped by an enemy? How do hens talk together? Describe a hen's song. 14. When does the rooster crow? What other sounds does he make?

15. With what weapons does the rooster fight his rivals and his enemies? 16. What are the natural enemies of the barnyard fowls and how do they escape them?

Pigeon houses of the upper Nile J. H. Comstock

Pigeons

There is mention of domesticated pigeons by writers three thousand years ago; and Pliny relates that the Romans were fervent pigeon fanciers at the be- ginning of the Christian era. All of our domestic varieties of pigeons have been developed from the Rock pigeon, a wild species common in Europe and Asia. The carrier pigeon was probably the first to be specially developed because of its use- fulness; its love and devotion to its mate and young and its homesickness when separated from them were used by man for his own interests. When a knight of old started off on a Crusade or to other wars, he took with him several pigeons from the home cote; and after riding many days he wrote a letter and tied it to the neck or under the wing of one of his birds, which he then set free, and it flew home with its message; later he would set free another in like manner. The drawback to this correspondence was that it went only in one direction; no bird from home brought message of cheer to the wandering knight. Nowadays mail routes, telegraph wires, and wireless currents enmesh our globe, and the pigeon as a car- rier is out-of-date; but fanciers still perfect the homer breed and train pigeons for very difficult flight competitions, some of them over distances of hundreds of miles. Recently a homer made one thou- sand miles in two days, five hours, and fifty minutes. The natural food of pigeons is grain; we feed them cracked corn, wheat, peas, Kafir corn, millet, and occasionally hemp

Page 51 (PDF 77)

Homing pigeons Verne Morton seed; it is best to feed mixed rations as the birds tire of a monotonous diet. Pigeons should be fed twice a day; the pi- geons and their near relatives, the doves7 are the only birds which can drink like a horse, that is, with the head lowered.

The walk of a pigeon is accompanied by a peculiar nodding as if the head were in some way attached to the feet, and this movement sends waves of iridescent colors over the bird's plumage. The flight of the pigeon is direct without soaring, the wings move rapidly and steadily, the birds circling and sailing as they start or alight. The crow flaps hard and then sails for a distance when it is inspecting the ground, while the hawk soars on mo- tionless wings. It requires closer attention to understand the language of the pigeon than that of the hen, nor has it so wide a range of expression as the latter; how- ever, some emotions which the children will understand are voiced in the cooing.

The nest is built of grass and twigs; the mother pigeon lays two eggs for a sitting; but in some breeds a pair will raise from seven to twelve broods per year. The eggs hatch in from sixteen to eighteen days, and both parents share the labors of in- cubating. In the case of the homer the father bird sits from about 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. and the mother the remainder of the day and night. The devotion of pigeons to their mates and to their young is great, and has been sung by the poets and praised by the philosophers during many ages; some breeds mate for life. The young pigeons or squabs are fed in a pe- culiar manner; in the crops of both par- ents is secreted a cheesy substance, known as pigeon milk. The parent seizes the beak of the squab in its own and pumps food from its own crop into the stomach of the young. This nutritious food is given to the squab for about five days and then replaced by grain which has been softened in the parents' stomachs, until the squabs are old enough to feed themselves. Rats, mice, weasels, and hawks are the chief enemies of the pigeons; since pigeons cannot fight, their only safety lies in flight.

As the original Rock pigeon built in caves, our domesticated varieties naturally build in the houses we provide for them.

A pigeon house should not be built for more than fifty pairs; it should be well ventilated and kept clean; it should face the south or east and be near a shallow, running stream if possible. The nest boxes should be about twelve inches square and nine inches in height with a door at one side, so that the nest may remain hidden. In front of each door there should be a little shelf to act as a balcony on which the resting parent bird may sit and coo to relieve the monotony of the sitter's task. Some breeders make a double compartJ. Deraary Pouter pigeons

Page 52 (PDF 78)

ment instead of providing a balcony, while in Egypt branches are inserted in the wall just below the doors of the very ornamental pigeon houses. The houses should be kept clean and whitewashed with lime to which carbolic acid is added in the proportion of one teaspoonful of acid to two gallons of the wash; the leaf stems of tobacco may be given to the pigeons as material for building their nests, so as to help keep in check the

Lesson 9

Pigeons

Hugh Spencer Domestic pigeon bird lice. There should be near the pigeon house plenty of fresh water for drinking and bathing; also a box of table salt, and another of cracked oyster shell and one of charcoal as fine as ground coffee. Salt is very essential to the health of pigeons.

The house should be high enough from the ground to keep the inmates safe from rats and weasels.

SUGGESTED READING — Animal Heroes, by Ernest Thompson Seton (Story of Arnaux); Audubon Bird Leaflets 2, 6, 101; Cher Ami, the Story of a Carrier Pigeon, by Marion B. Cothren; Farm Animals, by James G. .Lawson; Homing Pigeons: Their Care and Training (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers7 Bul- letin 1373); Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; The Pet BooJk, by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on pages 28-29. LEADING THOUGHT — The pigeons dif- fer from other birds in appearance and also in their actions. Their nesting habits are very interesting and there are many things that may be done to make the pigeons comfortable. They were, in an- cient days, used as letter carriers. METHOD — If there are pigeons kept in the neighborhood, it is best to encourage the pupils to observe these birds out- of-doors. Begin the work with an interest- ing story and with a few questions which will arouse the pupils' interest in the birds.

OBSERVATIONS — i . For an out-of-door

exercise during recess let the pupils ob- serve the pigeon and tell the colors of the beak, eyes, top of the head, back, breast, wings, tail, feet, and claws. This exercise is excellent training to fit the pupils to note quickly the colors of wild birds. 2. On what do pigeons feed? Are they fond of salt?

3. Describe how a pigeon drinks. How does it differ in this respect from other birds?

4. Describe the peculiar movement of the pigeon when walking.

5. Describe the pigeon's flight. Is it rapid, high in the air, do the wings flap constantly, etc.? What is the chief differ- ence between the flight of pigeons and that of crows or hawks?

6. Listen to the cooing of a pigeon and see if you can understand the different notes.

7. Describe the pigeon's nest. How many eggs are laid at a time? 8. Describe how the parents share the labors in hatching the eggs. How long is it after the eggs are laid before the young hatch?

9. How do the parents feed their young and on what material?

10. What are some enemies of pigeons and how do they escape from them? How can we protect the pigeons?

11. Describe how a pigeon house should be built.

Page 53 (PDF 79)

12. What must you do for pigeons to bers, that I cannot refrain from quoting keep them healthy and comfortable?

13. How many breeds of pigeons do you know? Describe them.

For my own part I readily concur with you in supposing that housedoves are derived from the small blue rock-pigeon, Columba livia, for many reasons.

But what is worth a hundred arguments is the instance you give in Sir Roger Mostyns housedoves in Caernarvonshire; which, though tempted by plenty of food and gentle treatment, can never be prevailed on to inhabit their cote for any time; but as soon as they begin to breed, betake themselves to the fastnesses of Ormshead, and deposit their young in safety amidst the inaccessible caverns and precipices of that stupendous promontory. " You may drive nature out with a pitchfork, but she will always return ": "Naturam expellas furca . . . tamen usque recurret." Virgil, as a familiar occurrence, by way of simile, describes a dove haunting the cavern of a rock in such engaging numthe passage.

Qualis spelunca subito commota Co- lumba, Cui domus, et dulces latebroso in pumice nidi, Fertur in arva volans, plausumque exter- rita pennis Dat tecto ingentem, mox aere lapsa quieto, Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque com- movet alas.

(Virg. Aen. v. 213—217) As when a dove her rocky hold forsakes, Roused, in a fright her sounding wings she shakes; The she cavern flies, rings with clattering: — out And leaves her callow care, and cleaves the skies; At first she flutters: — but at length she springs To smoother flight, and shoots upon her wings.

(Dryden's Translation) — WHITE OF SELBOURNE

The Canary And The Goldfinch

In childhood the language of birds and animals is learned unconsciously. What child, who cares for a canary, does not understand its notes which mean loneliness, hunger, eagerness, joy, scolding, fright, love, and song!

The pair of canaries found in most cages are not natural mates. The union is one de convenance, forced upon them by people who know little of bird affinities.

We could hardly expect that such a mat- ing would be always happy. The singer, as the male is called, is usually arbitrary and tyrannical and does not hesitate to lay chastising beak upon his spouse. The expression of affection of the two is usu- ally very practical, consisting of feeding each other with many beguiling notes and much fluttering of wings. The singer may have several songs; whether he has many or few depends chiefly upon his education; he usually shows exultation when singing by throwing the head back like a prima donna, to let the music well

K. ' ' 11

Leonard K. Beyer A goldfinch on her nest in a hawthorn

Page 54 (PDF 80)

54 Animals

forth. He is usually brighter yellow in color with more brilliantly black markings than his mate; she usually has much gray in her plumage. But there are about fifty varieties of canaries and each has distinct color and markings.

Canaries should be given a more varied diet than most people think. The seeds we buy or that we gather from the plantain or wild -grasses, they eat eagerly. They like fresh, green leaves of lettuce and chickweed and other tender herbage; they enjoy bread and milk occasionally.

There should always be a piece of cuttle- fish bone or sand and gravel where they can get it, as they need grit for digestion. Above all, they should have fresh water.

Hard-boiled egg is given them while nest- ing. The canary seed which we buy for them is the product of a grass in the Canary Islands. Hemp and rape seed are also sold for canary food.

The canary's beak is wide and sharp and fitted for shelling seeds; it is not a beak fitted for capturing insects. The canary, when drinking, does not have to lift the beak so high in the air in order to swallow the water as do some birds.

The nostrils are in the beak and are easily seen; the ear is hidden by the feathers.

The canary is a fascinating little creature when it shows interest in an object; it has such a knowing look, and its per- fectly round, black eyes are so intelligent and cunning. If the canary winks, the act is so rapid as to be seen with difficulty, but when it is drowsy, the little inner lid appears at the inner corner of its eye and the outer lids close so that we may be sure that they are there; the lower lid covers more of the eye than the upper. The legs and toes are covered with scale armor; the toes have long, curved claws that are neither strong nor sharp but are especially fitted for holding to the perch; the long hind toe with its stronger claw makes complete the grasp on the twig. When the canary is hopping about on the bottom of the cage we can see that its toes are more fitted for holding to the perch than for walking or hop- ping on the ground.

When the canary bathes, it ducks its head and makes a great splashing with its wings and likes to get thoroughly wet. Afterward, it sits all bedraggled and " humped up " for a time and then usu- ally preens its feathers as they dry. When going to sleep, it at first fluffs out its feathers and squats on the perch, draws back its head, and looks very drowsy.

Later it tucks its head under its wing for the night and looks like a little ball of feathers on the perch.

Canaries make a great fuss when build- ing their nest. A pasteboard box is usually given them with cotton and string for lining; usually one pulls out what the other puts in; and they both industriously tear the paper from the bottom of the cage to add to their building material.

Finally, a makeshift of a nest is com- pleted and the eggs are laid. If the singer is a good husband, he helps incubate the eggs and feeds his mate and sings to her frequently; but often he is quite the re- verse and abuses her abominably. The nest of the caged bird is very different in appearance from the neat nests of grass, plant down, and moss which the wild an- cestors of these birds made in some safe retreat in the shrubs or evergreens of the Canary Islands. The canary eggs are pale blue, marked with reddish-brown. The incubation period is 13 to 14 days. The young are as scrawny and ugly as most little birds and are fed upon food partially digested in the parents' stomachs. Their first plumage usually resembles that of the mother.

In their wild state in the Canary Islands and the Azores, the canaries are olive green above with golden yellow breasts. When the heat of spring begins, they move up the mountains to cooler levels and come down again in the winter. They may rear three or four broods on their way up the mountains, stopping at suc- cessive heights as the season advances, until finally they reach the high peaks.

The Goldfinch Or Thistle Bird

The goldfinches are small birds but their songs are so sweet and reedy that

Page 55 (PDF 81)

they seem to fill the world with music more effectually than many larger birds.

They are fond of the seeds of wild grass, and especially of thistle seed; and they throng the pastures and fence comers where the thistles hold sway. In summer, the male has bright yellow plumage with a little black cap " pulled down over his nose " like that of a grenadier. He has also a black tail and wings with white-tipped coverts and primaries. The tail feathers have white on their inner webs also, which does not show when the tail is closed.

The head and back of the female are brown and the under parts yellowish white, with wings and tail resembling those of the male except that they are not so vividly black. In winter the male dons a dress more like that of his mate; he loses his black cap but keeps his black wings and tail.

The song of the goldfinch is exquisite and he sings during the entire period of his golden dress; he sings while flying as well as when at rest. The flight is in itself beautiful, being wavelike up and down, in graceful curves. Mr. Chapman says that on the descending half of the curve the male sings " Per-chick or-ree." The Audubon Educational Leaflet No. 17 A pair of goldfinches A. A. Allen The nest and eggs of a goldfinch in an elm tree goldfinch's call notes and alarm notes are very much like those of the canary.

Since the goldfinches live so largely upon seeds of grasses, they stay with us in small numbers during the winter. During this period both parents and young are dressed in olive green, and their sweet call notes are a surprise to us of a cold, snowy morning, for they are associated in our memory with summer. The male dons his winter suit in October.

The goldfinch nest is a mass of fluffi- ness. These birds make feather beds for their young, or perhaps we should say beds of down, since it is the thistledown which is used for this mattress. The out- side of the nest consists of fine shreds of bark or fine grass closely woven; but the inner portion is a mat of thistledown — a cushion an inch and a half thick for a nest which has an opening of scarcely three inches; sometimes the outside is ornamented with lichens. The nest is usually placed in some bush or tree, often in an evergreen, and ordinarily not more than five or six feet from the ground; but sometimes it is placed thirty feet high.

The eggs are from four to six in number and bluish white in color. The female builds the nest, her mate cheering her with song meanwhile; he feeds her while she is incubating and helps feed the young. A strange thing about the nesting habits of the goldfinches is that the nest is not built until August. It has been surmised that this nesting season is delayed until

Page 56 (PDF 82)

56 Animals

there is an abundance of thistledown for building material. SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 17; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Canaries: Their Care and Management by Alexander Wet- more (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers7 Bulletin 1327); The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock (Canary); also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 10

The Canary And The Goldfinch

LEADING THOUGHT — The canary is a close relative of the common wild gold- finch. If we compare the habits of the two we can understand how a canary might live if it were free.

METHOD — Bring a canary to the schoolroom and ask for observations. Ask the pupils to compare the canary with the goldfinches which are common in the summer. The canary offers oppor- tunity for very close observation, which will prove excellent training for the pupils for beginning bird study. OBSERVATIONS — i . If there are two canaries in the cage, are they always pleas- ant to each other? Which one is the " boss "? How do they show displeasure or bad temper? How do they show affec- tion for each other?

2. Which one is the singer? Does the other one ever attempt to sing? What other notes do the canaries make besides singing? How do they greet you when you bring their food? What do they say when they are lonesome and hungry? 3. Does the singer have more than one song? How does he act while singing? Why does he throw back his head like an opera singer when singing? 4. Are the canaries all the same color? What is the difference in color between the singer and the mother bird? Describe the colors of each in your notebook as follows: top and sides of head, back, tail, wings, throat, breast, and under parts. 5. What does the canary eat? What sort of seeds do we buy for it? What seeds do we gather for it in our garden? Do the goldfinches live on the same seeds? What does the canary do to the seeds before eating them? What tools does he use to take off the shells?

6. Notice the shape of the canary's beak. Is it long and strong like a robin's? Is it wide and sharp so that it can shell seeds? If you should put an insect in the cage would the canary eat it?

7. Why do we give the canary cuttle- bone? Note how it takes off pieces of the bone. Could it do this if its beak were not sharp?

8. Note the actions of the birds when they drink. Why do they do this? 9. Can you see the nostrils? Where are they situated? Why can you not see the ear? 10. When the canary is interested in looking at a thing how does it act? Look closely at its eyes. Does it wink? How does it close its eyes? When it is drowsy can you see the little inner lid come from the corner of the eye nearest the beak? Is this the only licl?

11. How are the legs and feet covered? Describe the toes. Compare the length of the claw with the length of the toe. What is the shape of the claw? Do you think that claws and feet of this shape are better fitted for holding to a branch than for walking? Note the arrangement of the toes when the bird is on its perch. Is the hind toe longer and stronger? If so, why? Do the canaries hop or walk about the bottom of the cage?

12. What is the attitude of the canary when it goes to sleep at night? How does it act when it takes a bath? How does it get the water over its head? Over its back? What does it do after the bath? If we forget to put in the bath dish how does the bird get its bath?

Nesting Habits To Be Observed In The Spring

13. When the canaries are ready to build a nest, what material do we furnish them for it? Does the father bird help the mother to build the nest? Do they strip off the paper on the bottom of the

Page 57 (PDF 83)

cage for nest material? Describe the nest when it is finished.

14. Describe the eggs carefully. Does the father bird assist in sitting on the eggs? Does he feed the mother bird when she is sitting?

15. How long after the eggs are laid before the young ones hatch? Do both parents feed the young? Do they swallow the food first and partially digest it before giving it to the young? 16. How do the very young birds look? What is their appearance when they leave the nest? Does the color of their plumage resemble that of the father or the mother?

17. Where did the canaries originally come from? Find the place on the map.

The Goldfinch

LEADING THOUGHT — Goldfinches are seen at their best in late summer or September, when they appear in flocks wherever the thistle seeds are found in abundance. Goldfinches so resemble the canaries in form, color, song, and habits that they are called wild canaries.

METHOD — The questions for this les- son may be given to the pupils before the end of school in June. The results may be reported to the teacher in class when the school begins in the autumn.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Where do you find the goldfinches feeding? How can you distinguish the father from the mother

birds and from the young ones in color?

2. Describe the colors of the male gold- finch and also of the female as follows: crown, back of head, back, tail, wings, throat, breast, and lower parts. Describe in particular the black cap of the male.

3. Do you know the song of the gold- finch? Is it like the song of the canary? What other notes has the goldfinch?

4. Describe the peculiar flight of the goldfinches. Do they fly high in the air? Do you usually see them singly or in flocks?

5. Where do the goldfinches stay dur- ing the winter? What change takes place in the coat of the male during the winter? What do they eat during the winter? 6. At what time of year do the gold- finches build their nests? Describe the nest. Where is it placed? How far above the ground? How far from a stream or other water? Of what is the outside made?

The lining? What is the general appear- ance of the nest? What is the color of the eggs? Sometimes goldfinches one by one will drop From low-hung branches; little space they stop, But sip, and twitter, and their feathers sleek, Then off at once, as in a wanton frealc; Or perhaps, to show their black and golden wings; Pausing upon their yellow flutterings, KEATS

The Robin

Most of us think we know the robin well, but very few of us know definitely the habits of this, our commonest bird.

The object of this lesson is to form in the pupils a habit of careful observation, and to enable them to read for themselves the interesting story of this little life which is lived every year before their eyes. More- over, a robin notebook, if well kept, is a treasure for any child; and the close obser- vation necessary for this lesson trains the pupils to note in a comprehending way the habits of other birds. It is the very best preparation for bird study of the right sort.

A few robins occasionally find a swamp where they can obtain food to nourish them during the northern winter, but for the most part they go in flocks to our southern states, where they settle in swamps and cedar forests and live chiefly upon fruits and berries. The robins do not

Page 58 (PDF 84)

Leonard K. Beyer A robin and its hungry young nest or sing while in Southland. When the robins first come to us in the spring they feed on wild berries, being especially fond of those of the Virginia creeper. As soon as the frost is out of the ground they begin feeding on earthworms, cutworms, white grubs, and other insects. The male robins come first, but do not sing much until their mates arrive.

The robin is ten inches long and the English sparrow is only six and one-third inches long; the pupils should get the sizes of these two birds fixed in their minds for comparison in measuring other birds. The father robin is much more decided in color than his mate; his beak is yellow, there is a yellow ring about the eye and a white spot above it. The head is black and the back slaty-brown; the breast is bril- liant reddish brown or bay and the throat is white, streaked with black. The mother bird has paler back and breast and has no black upon the head. The wings of both are a little darker than the back; the tail is black with the two outer feathers tipped with white. These white spots do not show except when the bird is flying and are " call colors " — that is, they enable the birds to see each other and thus keep together when flying in flocks during the night. The white patch made by the un- der tail-coverts serves a similar purpose.

The feet and legs are strong and dark in color.

The robin has many sweet songs and he may be heard in the earliest dawn and also in the evenings; if he wishes to cheer his mate he may burst into song at any time.

He feels especially songful before the summer showers, when he seems to sing, " I have a theory, a theory, it's going to rain/' And he might well say that he also has a theory, based on experi- ence, that a soaking shower will drive many of the worms and larvae in the soil up to the surface where he can get them.

Besides these songs the robins have a great variety of notes which the female shares, although she is not a singer. The agonizing, angry cries they utter when they see a cat or squirrel must express their feelings fully; they give a very different warning note when they see crow or hawk. This note is hard to describe; it is a long, not very loud squeak. A robin can run or hop as pleases him best, and it is interesting to see one, while hunting earthworms, run a little distance, then stop to bend the head and listen and look; when he finally seizes the earth- worm he braces himself on his strong legs and tugs manfully until he sometimes alHerbert E. Gray Four blue eggs in a nest on a rail fence

Page 59 (PDF 85)

most falls over backward as the worm lets go its hold. The robins, especially at nesting time, eat many insects as well as earth- worms.

The beginning of a robin's nest is very interesting; much strong grass, fine straw, leaves, and rootlets are brought and placed on a secure support. When enough of this material is collected and arranged, the bird goes to the nearest mud puddle or stream margin and fills its beak with soft mud; it then goes back and " peppers " it into the nest material; after the latter is soaked, the bird gets into it and molds it to the body by turning around and around. In one case which the author watched the mother bird did this part of the building, although the father worked industriously in bringing the other materials. After the nest is molded but not yet hardened, it is lined with fine grass or rootlets. If the season is very dry and there is no soft mud at hand, the robins can build without the aid of this plaster. Four eggs, which are an exquisite greenish blue in color, are usually laid.

Both parents share the monotonous business of incubating, and in the instance under the eyes of the author the mother bird was on the nest at night; the period of incubating is from eleven to fourteen days. The most noticeable thing about Leonard K. Beyer A robin on its nest A. A. Allen Young robins. Their spotted breasts show their relationship to the thrushes a very young robin is its wide, yellow-mar- gined mouth, which it opens like a satchel every time the nest is jarred. This wide mouth cannot but suggest to anyone who sees it that it is meant to be stuffed, and the two parents work very hard to fill it.

Both parents feed the young and often the father feeds the mother bird while she is brooding. Professor Treadwell experi- mented with young robins and found that each would take 68 earthworms daily; these worms if laid end to end would measure about 14 feet. Think of 14 feet of earthworm being wound into the little being in the nest; no wonder that it grows so fast! I am convinced that each pair of robins about our house has its own special territory for hunting worms, and that any trespasser is quickly driven off. The young birds' eyes are opened when they are from six to eight days old, and by that time the feather tracts, that is, the places where the feathers are to grow, are covered by the spinelike pin-feathers; these feathers push the down out and it often clings to their tips. In eleven days the birds are pretty well feathered; their wing feathers are fairly developed, but alas, they have no tail feathers! When a young robin flies from the nest he is a very uncertain and tippy youngster, not having any tail to steer him while flying, or to balance him when alighting.

It is an anxious time for the old robins when the young ones leave the nest, and

Page 60 (PDF 86)

6o ANIMALS they flutter about and scold at anyone who comes in sight, so afraid are they that injury will come to their inexperienced young ones; for some time the parents care for the fledglings, solicitously feeding them and giving them warnings of danger.

The young robin shows in its plumage its relation to the thrush family, for it is yellowish and very spotted and speckled, especially on the breast. The parents may raise several broods, but they rarely use the Leonard K. Beyer This robin became so entangled in ma- terial it had gathered for its nest tha{t it was unable to fly same nest for two consecutive broods, both because it may be infested with para- sites and because it is more or less soiled, although the mother robin works hard to keep it clean; she carries away all waste matter in her beak and drops it at some distance from the nest. Robins do not sing much after the breeding season is over until after they have molted. They are fond of cherries and other pulp fruits and often do much damage to such crops. The wise orchardist will plant a few Russian mulberry trees at a reasonable distance from his cherry trees, and thus, by giving the robins a fruit which they like better, and which ripens a little earlier, he may save his cherries. It has been proved conclusively that the robins are far more bene- ficial than damaging to the farmer; they destroy many noxious insects, two-thirds of their food throughout the year consisting of insects; during April and May they do a great work in destroying cutworms. The robins stay in the North later than most migrating birds, often not leaving us entirely before November. Occasional stragglers may remain all winter, in some protected areas. Their chief enemies in northern climates are cats, crows, and squirrels. Cats should be taught to let birds alone (see lesson on cat) or should be killed. The crows have driven the robins into villages where they can build their nests under the protection of man. If crows venture near a house to attack the robins, firing a gun at them once or twice will give them a hint which they are not slow to take. The robins of an entire neighborhood will attack a nest-robbing crow, but usually too late to save the nest- lings. The robins can defend themselves fairly well against the red squirrel unless he steals the contents of the nest while the owners are away. There can be no doubt that the same pair of robins return to the same nesting place year after year.

On the Cornell University campus a robin lacking the white tip on one side of his tail was noted to have returned to the same particular feeding ground for several years; and we are very certain that the same female bird built in the vines of our piazza for seven consecutive years; it took two years to win her confidence, but after that she seemed to feel as if she were a part of the family and regarded us all as friends. We were sure that during her fifth year she brought a new young hus- band to the old nesting site; probably her faithful old husband had met with some mischance during the winter.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 46; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Bur- roughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na- ture and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i. Hunting, Book 2, Outdoor Visits, Book 5, Science at Home; Nature Stories for CLII-

Page 61 (PDF 87)

Birds 61

dren, Autumn, by Eva L. Gordon and Jennie Hall; Science Stories, by Wilbur L.

Beauchamp, W. S. Gray and Co-authors, Book i; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 11

The Robin

LEADING THOUGHT — To understand all we can about the life and ways of the robin.

METHOD — For first and second grades this work may be done by means of an extra blackboard, or what is far better, sheets of ordinary, buff, manila wrapping paper fastened together at the upper end, so that they may be hung and turned over like a calendar. On the outside page make a picture of a robin in colored chalk or crayons, coloring according to the children's answers to questions of series " b." Devote each page to one series of ques- tions, as given below. Do not show these questions to the pupils until the time is ripe for the observations. Those pupils giving accurate answers to these questions should have their names on a roll of honor on the last page of the chart. For third or higher grades the pupils may have individual notebooks in which each one may write his own answers to the questions of the successive series, which should be written on the blackboard at the proper time for the observa- tions. This notebook should have a page about 6x8 inches and may be made of any blank paper. The cover or first page should show the picture of the robin colored by the pupil, and may contain other illus- trative drawings, and any poems or other literature pertinent to the subject.

OBSERVATIONS BY PUPILS — Series a (to be given in March in the northern states).

1. At what date did you see the first robin this year?

2. Where did the robin spend the win- ter? Did it build a nest or sing when in its winter quarters?

3. What does it find to eat when it first comes in the spring? How does this differ from its ordinary food?

4. Does the robin begin to sing as soon as it comes north?

Series b (to be given the first week of April).

1. How large is the robin compared with the English sparrow? 2. What is the color of the beak? The eye? Around and above the eye?

3. The color of the top of the head? The back? The throat? The breast?

4. Do all the robins have equally bright colors on head, back, and breast?

5. What is the color of the wing feathers?

6. What is the color of the tail feath- ers? Where is the white on them? Can the white spots be seen except during flight of the bird? Of what use to the robin are these spots?

7. Is there white on the underside of the robin as it flies over you? Where? 8. What is the color of the feet and legs?

Series c (to be given the second week of April).

1 . At what time of day does the robin sing? Is it likely to sing before a rain? How many different songs does a robin sing?

2. What note does a robin give when it sees a cat?

3. What sounds do the robins make when they see a crow or a hawk?

4. Does a robin run or walk or hop?

5. Do you think it finds the hidden earthworm by listening? If so, describe the act.

6. Describe how a robin acts as it pulls a big earthworm out of the ground.

7. Do robins eat other food than earth- worms?

Series d (to be given in the middle of April or a little later) . 1. At what date did your pair of robins begin to build their nest? 2. Where was the nest placed and with what material was it begun?

3. Can you tell the difference in colors between the father and mother birds? Do both parents help in making the nest?

Page 62 (PDF 88)

62 Animals

4. How and with what material is the plastering done? How is the nest molded into shape? Do both birds do this part of the work?

5. Where is the mud obtained and how carried to the nest?

6. How is the nest lined?

Series e (to be given a week after series d). 1. What is the number and color of the eggs in the nest? 2. Do both parents do the sitting? Which sits on the nest during the night?

3. Give the date when the first nestling hatches.

4. How does the young robin look? The color and size of its beak? Why is its beak so large? Can it see? Is it covered with down? Compare it to a young chick and describe the difference between the two.

5. What does the young robin do if it feels any jar against the nest? Why does it do this?

6. Do the young robins make any noise?

7. What do the parents feed their young? Do both parents feed them? Are the young fed in turns? 8. Do you believe each pair of robins has a certain territory for hunting worms which is not trespassed upon by other robins?

Series f (to be given three days after series e).

1. How long after hatching before the young robin's eyes are open? Can you see where the feathers are going to grow?

How do the young feathers look? 2. How long after hatching before the young birds are covered with feathers? 3. Do their wing or tail feathers come first?

4. How is the nest kept clean? 5. Give the date when the young robins leave the nest. How do the old robins act at this important crisis?

6. Describe the young robin's flight. Why is it so unsteady?

7. How do the young robins differ in colors of breast from the parents? 8. Do the parents stay with the young for a time? What care do they give them?

9. If the parents raise a second brood, do they use the same nest?

Series g (to be given for summer read- ing and observations ) . Why? 1. Do the robins sing all summer?

2. Do the robins take your berries and cherries? How can you prevent them from doing this? 3. Flow does the robin help us?

4. How long does it stay with us in the fall?

5. What are the chief enemies of the robin and how does it fight or escape them? How can we help protect it?

6. Do you think the same robins come back to us each year?

The Bluebird

Stern as were our Pilgrim Fathers, they could not fail to welcome certain birds with plumage the color of June skies, whose sweet voices brought hope and cheer to their homesick hearts at the close of that first, long, hard winter of 1621.

The red breasts of these birds brought to memory the robins of old England, and so they were called " blue robins "; and this name expresses well the relationship implied, because the bluebirds and robins of America are both members of the thrush family, a family noted for exquisite song.

The bluebirds are usually ahead of the robins in the northward journey and often arrive in New York arnid the blizzards of early March, their soft, rich " curly " notes bringing, even to the doubting mind, glad convictions of coming spring. There is a family resemblance between voices of bluebird and robin, a certain rich quality of tone; but the robin's song is far more assertive and complex than is the soft,

Page 63 (PDF 89)

"purling" song of the bluebird, which has been vocalized as " tru-al-ly, tru-al-ly." These love songs cease with the hard work of feeding the nestlings, but may be heard again as a prelude to the second brood in June. The red breast of the bluebird is its only color resemblance to the robin, although the young bluebirds and robins are both spotted, showing the thrush colors.

The robin is so much larger than the bluebird that commonly the relationship is not noticed. This is easily explained be- cause there is nothing to suggest a robin in the exquisite cerulean blue of the bluebird's head, back, tail, and wings. This color is most brilliant when the bird is on the wing, in the sunshine. However, there is a certain mirror-like quality in these blue feathers; and among leaf shad- ows or even among bare branches they in a measure reflect the surroundings and thus render the bird less noticeable.

The female is paler, being grayish blue above and with only a tinge of red-brown This bluebird is nesting in a cavity drilled by a woodpecker the previous year Leonard K. Beyer A hollow fence post is a common home of the bluebird. The young are fed chiefly on insects on the breast; both birds are white beneath.

The bluebirds haunt open woods, fields of second growth, and especially old or- chards. They flit about in companies of three or four until they mate for nesting.

While feeding, the bluebird usually sits on a low branch keeping a keen eye on the ground below, now and then dropping suddenly on an unsuspecting insect and then returning to its perch; it does not re- main on the ground hunting food as does the robin. The nest is usually built in a hole in a tree or post and is made of soft grass. A hollow apple tree is a favorite nesting site.

In building birdhouses we should bear in mind that a cavity about ten inches deep and six inches in height and width will give a pair of bluebirds room for building a nest. The opening should not be more than two or two and one-half inches in diameter and there should be no threshold; this latter is a very particu- lar point. If there is a threshold or place to alight upon, the sparrows are likely to dispute with the bluebirds and drive them away, but the sparrow does not care for a

Page 64 (PDF 90)

64 Animals

place which has no threshold. The box for the bluebird may be made out of old boards or may be a section of an old tree trunk; it should be fastened from six to fifteen feet above the ground, and should be in nowise noticeable in color from its surroundings. To protect the nest from cats, barbed wire should be wound around the tree or post below the box. If the box for the nest is placed upon a post, the barbed wire will also protect it from the squirrels. The eggs are bluish white; the young birds in their first feathers are spotted on the back and have whitish breasts mottled with brown. The food of the nestlings is almost entirely insects. In fact, this bird during its entire life is a great friend to man. The food of the adult is more than three-fourths insects and the remainder is wild berries and fruits, the winter food being largely mistletoe ber- ries. It makes a specialty of beetles, cater- pillars, and grasshoppers, and seems never to touch any of our cultivated fruits. We should do everything in our power to en- courage and protect these birds from their enemies, which are chiefly cats, squirrels, and English sparrows.

The migration takes place in flocks dur- ing autumn, but it is done in a most lei- surely manner with frequent stops where food is plenty. The bluebirds we see in September are probably not the ones we have had with us during the summer, but are those which have come from farther north.

They winter largely in the Gulf states; the writer has often heard them singing in midwinter in southern Mississippi. The bluebirds seem to be the only ones that sing while at their winter resorts. They live the year round in the Bermudas, contrasting their heavenly blue plumage with the vivid red of the cardinals. The bluebird should not be confused with the indigo bunting; the latter is darker blue and has a blue breast.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 24; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na- ture and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; Science Stories, by Wilbur L. Beauchamp, W. S. Gray and Co-authors, Book i; also, readings on pages 28-29. Winged lute that we call a bluebird, You blend in a silver strain The sound of the laughing waters, The patter of spring's sweet rain, The voice of the winds, the sunshine, And fragrance of blossoming things. Ah! You are an April poem, That God has dowered with wings. — " THE BLUEBIRD/' REXFORD

Lesson 12

The Bluebird

LEADING THOUGHT — The bluebird is related to the robins and thrushes and is as beneficial as it is beautiful. We should study its habits and learn how to make nesting boxes for it, and protect it in all ways. METHOD — The observations of this

lesson must be made in the field and by the pupils individually. Give to each an outline of questions to answer through seeing. There should follow reading lessons on the bluebird's value to us and its winter migrations, and the lesson should end in discussions of the best way to build boxes for its use in nesting season, its pro- tection from cats and other enemies.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Which comes north

earlier in spring, the robin or the blue- bird?

2. How do the two resemble each othei and differ from each other?

3. Describe the bluebirds' song. Do they sing all summer? 4. Describe the colors of the bluebird as follows: the head, back, breast, under parts, wings, tail. Flow does the male blue- bird differ from his mate in colors?

5. Where were the bluebirds you saw? What were they doing? If feeding, how did they act?

6. Can you see the color of the blue-

Page 65 (PDF 91)

bird as plainly when it is in a tree as when it is flying? If not, why?

7. Where do the bluebirds build their nests? Of what material are the nests made? Do both parents work at the nest building?

8. What is the color of the eggs? How do the young birds look, when old enough to leave the nest, as compared with their parents? 9. What do the bluebirds eat? How do they benefit us? 10. What can we do to induce the blue- birds to live near our houses? How can we protect them? 1 1 . Where do the bluebirds spend the winter?

Birds 65

12. Make a colored picture of a blue- bird. How can we tell the bluebird from the indigo bunting?

mies? 13. What are the bluebirds* chief eneHark/ 'tis the bluebird's venturous strain High on the old fringed elm at the gate - Sweet-voiced, valiant on the swaying bough, Alert, elate, Dodging the fitful spits of snow, New England's poet-laureate Telling us Spring has come again/ — THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH

The White-Breasted Nuthatch

The busy nuthatch climbs his tree Around the great bole spirally, Peeping into wrinkles gray, Under ruffled lichens gay, Lazily piping one sharp note From his silver mailed throat.

— Maurice Thompson

Blithe and mellow is the ringing " ank, ank " note of the nuthatch, and why need we allude to its nasal timbre! While it is not a strictly musical note, it has a most enticing quality and translates into sound the picture of bare-branched trees and the feeling of enchantment which permeates the forest in winter; it is one of the most "woodsy" notes in the bird repertoire. And while the singer of this note is not so bewitching as his constant chum the chickadee, yet he has many interesting ways quite his own. Nor is this "ank, ank " his only note. I have often heard a pair talking to each other in sweet confidential syllables, " wit, wit, wit/' very dif- ferent from the loud note meant for the world at large. The nuthatches and chickadees hunt together all winter; it is no mere business partnership but a matter of congenial tastes. The chickadees hunt over the twigs and smaller branches, while the nuthatches usually prefer the tree trunks and the bases of the branches; both birds like the looks of the world upside down, and while the chickadee hangs head down from a twig, the nuthatch is quite likely to alight head down on a tree bole, holding itself safely in this position by thrust- ing its toes out at right angles to the body, thus getting a firm hold upon the bark. Sometimes its foot will be twisted completely around, the front toes pointed up the tree. The foot is well adapted for clinging to the bark as the front toes are strong and the hind toe is very long and is armed with a strong claw. Thus equipped, this bird runs about on the tree so rapidly that it has earned the name of "tree mouse/' It often ascends a tree trunk spirally but is not so hidebound in this habit as is the brown creeper. It runs up or down freely, head first, and never flops down backwards like a woodpecker. In color the nuthatch is bluish gray above with white throat and breast and

Page 66 (PDF 92)

reddish underparts. The sides of the head are white; the black cap extends back upon the neck but is not " pulled down " to the eyes as with the chickadees. The wing feathers are dark brown edged with pale gray. The upper middle tail feathers are bluish like the back; the others are dark brown and tipped with white in such a acorn into a seam in the bark and then throw back its head, woodpecker fashion, and drive home its chisel beak. But it does not always use common sense in this habit. I have often seen one cut off a piece of suet, fly off and thrust it into some crevice, and hammer it as hard as if it were encased in a walnut shell. This alA family oj white-breasted nuthatches S. A. Grimes manner that the tail when spread shows a broad white border on both sides. The most striking contrast between the chicka- dee and nuthatch in markings is that the latter lacks the black bib. However, its entire shape is very different from that of the chickadee and its beak is long and slender, being as long as its head or longer, while the beak of the chickadee is a short, sharp little pick. The bill of the nuthatch is fitted to reach in crevices of the bark and pull out hiding insects, or to hammer open the shell of nut or acorn and get both the meat of the nut and the grub feeding upon it. It will wedge an ways seems bad manners, like carrying off fruit from table d'hote; but the nuthatch is polite enough in using a napkin, for after eating the suet, it invariably wipes its bill on a branch most assiduously, first one side then the other, until it is perfectly clean. The nuthatches are a great benefit to our trees in winter, for then is when they hunt for hiding pests on the trunks. Their food consists of beetles, caterpillars, pupas of various insects, also seeds of rag- weed, sunflowers, acorns, etc. While the nuthatch finds much of its food on trees, yet Mr. Torrey has seen it awkwardly turn-

Page 67 (PDF 93)

ing over fallen leaves hunting for insects, and Mr. Baskett says it sometimes catches insects on the wing and gets quite out of breath from this unusual exercise.

It is only during the winter that we commonly see the nuthatches, for during the nesting season they usually retire to the deep woods, where they may occupy a cavity in a tree used by a woodpecker last year, or may make a hole for themselves with their sharp beaks. The nest is lined with leaves, feathers, and hair; from five to nine creamy, speckled eggs are the treasure of this cave.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 59; The Nature Hour, by Lucille Nicol, S. M. Levenson, and Teressa Kahn, Sixth Year, Spring; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 13

The Nuthatch

LEADING THOUGHT — The nuthatch is often a companion of the chickadees and woodpeckers. It has no black bib, like the chickadee, and it alights on a tree trunk head downward, which distinguishes it from woodpeckers.

METHOD — This bird, like the chickadee and downy, gladly shares the suet banA characteristic pose L. H. Bailey Leonard K. Beyer The nuthatch runs head first down tree trunks in search of insects. Here he is eating suet which has been fastened to the tree quet we prepare for them and may be observed at leisure while " at table." The contrast between the habits of the nuthatch and those of its companions makes it a most valuable aid in stimulating close and keen observation on the part of the pupils.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Where have you

seen the nuthatches? Were they with other birds? What other birds?

2. Does a nuthatch usually alight on the ends of the branches of a tree or on the trunk and larger limbs? Does it usually alight head down or up? When it runs down the tree, does it go head first or does it back down? When it ascends the tree, does it follow a spiral path? Does it use its tail for a brace when climbing, as does the downy?

3. How does the arrangement of the nuthatch's toes assist it in climbing? Are the three front toes of each foot directed downward when the bird alights head downward? How does it manage its feet when in this position?

4. What is the general color of the nut- hatch above and below? The color of the top and sides of head? Color of back?

Wings? Tail? Throat? Breast?

5. Does the black cap come down to

Page 68 (PDF 94)

68 Animals

the eyes on the nuthatch as on the chicka- dee? Has the nuthatch a black bib?

6. What is the shape of the beak of the nuthatch? For what is it adapted? How does it differ from the beak of the chicka- dee?

7. What is the food of the nuthatch? Where is it found? Does it open nuts for the grubs or the nut meat? Observe the way it strikes its beak into the suet; why does it strike so hard?

8. How would you spell this bird's note? Have you heard it give more than one note?

9. How does the nuthatch benefit our trees? At what season does it benefit them most? Why?

10. Where do the nuthatches build their nests? Why do we see the nut- hatches oftener in winter than in sum- mer?

Acadian chickadees Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.

The Chickadee

He Is the hero of the woods; there are courage and good nature enough in that compact little body, which you may hide in your fist, to supply a whole groveful of May songsters. He has the Spartan virtue of an eagle, the cheerfulness of a thrush, the nimbleness of Code Sparrow, the endurance of the sea-birds condensed into his tiny frame, and there have been added a pertness and ingenuity all his own. His curi- osity is immense, and his audacity equal to it; I have even had one alight upon the barrel of the gun over my shoulders as I sat quietly under his tree. — ERNEST INGERSOLL However careless we may be of our bird friends when we are in the midst of the luxurious life of summer, even the most careless among us give pleased attention to the birds that bravely endure with us the rigors of winter. And when this winged companion of winter proves to be the most fascinating little ball of feathers ever created, constantly overflowing with cheerful song, our pleased attention changes to active delight. Thus it is, that in all the lands of snowy winters the chickadee is a loved comrade of the country wayfarer; that happy song " chick-adee-dee-dee " finds its way to the dullest consciousness and the most callous heart.

The chickadees appear in small flocks in the winter and often in company with the nuthatches. The chickadees work on the twigs and ends of branches, while the nuthatches usually mine the bark of the trunk and larger branches, the former hunting insect eggs and the latter, insects tucked away in winter quarters. When the chickadee is prospecting for eggs, it first looks the twig over from above and then hangs head down and inspects it from below; it is a thorough worker and doesn't in- tend to overlook anything whatever; and however busily it is hunting, it always finds

Page 69 (PDF 95)

time for singing; whether on the wing or perched upon a twig or hanging from it like an acrobat, head down, it sends forth its happy " chickadeedee " to assure us that this world is all right and good enough for anybody. Besides this song, it begins in February to sing a most seductive " fee-bee/7 giving a rising inflection to the first syllable and a long, falling inflection to the last, which makes it a very different song from the short, jerky notes of the flycatcher called phoebe, which cuts the last syllable short and gives it a rising in- flection. More than this, the chickadee has some chatty conversational notes, and now and then performs a bewitching little yodel, which is a fit expression of its own delicious personality.

The general effect of the colors of the chickadee is grayish brown above and grayish white below. The top of the head is black, the sides white, and it has a se- ductive little black bib under its chin.

The back is grayish, the wings and tail are dark gray, the feathers having white mar- gins. The breast is grayish white changing to buff or brownish at the sides and below.

It is often called the " Black-capped Titmouse/7 and it may always be distinS. A. Grimes Black-capped chickadees. The friendly chick- adee is easily tamed A " banded ' Leonard K. Beyer chickadee guished by black cap and black bib. It is smaller than the English sparrow; its beak is a sharp little pick just fitted for taking insect eggs off twigs and from under bark. Insects are obliged to pass the winter in some stage of their existence, and many of them wisely remain in the egg until there is something worth doing in the way of eating. These eggs are glued fast to the food trees by the mother insect and thus provide abundant food for the chicka- dees. It has been estimated that one chickadee will destroy several hundred insect eggs in one day, and it has been proved that orchards frequented by these birds are much more free from insect pests than other orchards in the same locality.

They can be enticed into orchards by put- ting up beef fat or bones and thus we can secure their valuable service. In summer these birds attack caterpillars and other insects.

When it comes to nest building, if the chickadees cannot find a house to rent they proceed to dig out a proper hole from some decaying tree, which they line with moss, feathers, fur, or some other soft ma- terial. The nest is often not higher than six to ten feet from the ground. One which I studied was in a decaying fence post. The eggs are white, sparsely speckled and spotted with lilac or rufous. The young birds are often eight in number. How these fubsy birdlings manage to pack themselves in such a small hole is a wonder; it probably gives them good discipline in bearing hardships cheerfully.

Page 70 (PDF 96)

7o

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Aiidubon Bird Leaflet 61; Bird Stories, by Edith M. Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; Win- ter, by Dallas Lore Sharp; also, readings on pages 28-29. LESSON 14 THE CHICKADEE LEADING THOUGHT — The chickadee is as useful as it is delightful; it remains in the North during winter, working hard to clear our trees of insect eggs and sing- ing cheerily all day. It is so friendly that we can induce it to come even to the window sill by putting out suet to show our friendly interest. METHOD — Put beef fat on the trees near the schoolhouse in December and replenish it about every two or three weeks. The chickadees will come to the feast and may be observed all winter. Give the questions a few at a time and let the children read in the bird books a record of the benefits derived from this bird.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Where have you seen the chickadees? What were they do- ing? Were there several together? 2. What is the common song of the chickadee? What other notes has it? Have

you heard it yodel? Have you heard it sing " fee-bee, fee-bee "? How does this song differ from that of the phcebe? Does it sing on the wing or when at rest?

3. What is the color of the chickadee: top and sides of head, back, wings, tail, throat, breast, under parts?

4. Compare the size of the chickadee with that of the English sparrow.

5. What is the shape of the chickadee's bill and for what is it adapted? What is the food in winter? Where does the bird find it? How does it act when feeding and hunting for food? 6. Does the chickadee usually alight on the ends of the branches or on the larger portions near the trunk of the tree?

7. How can you distinguish the chicka- dees from their companions, the nut- hatches?

8. Does the chickadee ever seem discouraged by the snow and cold weather? Do you know another name for the chickadee?

9. Where does it build its nest? Of what material? Have you ever watched one of these nests? If so, tell about it. 10. How does the chickadee benefit our orchards and shade trees? How can we induce it to feel at home with us and work for us?

The Downy Woodpecker

Friend Downy is the name this at- tractive little neighbor has earned, be- cause it is so friendly to those of us who love trees. Watch it as it hunts each crack and crevice of the bark of your favorite apple or shade tree, seeking assiduously for cocoons and insects hiding there, and you will soon, of your own accord, call it friend; you will soon love its black and white uniform, which consists of a black coat speckled and barred with white, and whitish gray vest and trousers. The front of the head is black and there is a black streak extending backward from the eye with a white streak above and also below it. The male has a vivid red patch on the back of the head, but his wife shows no such giddiness; plain black and white are good enough for her. In both sexes the throat and breast are white, the middle tail feathers black, while the side tail feath- ers are white, barred with black at their tips.

The downy has a way of alighting low

Page 71 (PDF 97)

down on a tree trunk or at the base of a larger branch and climbing upward in a jerky fashion; it never runs about over the tree nor does it turn around and go down head Erst, like the nuthatch; if it wishes to go down a short distance it accomplishes this by a few awkward, backward hops; but when it really wishes to descend, it flies off and down. The downy, like other woodpeckers, has a special arrange- ment of its physical machinery which en- ables it to climb trees in its own manner.

It can grasp the bark on the side of a tree more firmly because its fourth toe is turned backward and works as a companion with the thumb. Thus it is able to clutch the bark as with a pair of nip- pers, two claws in front and two claws behind; and as another aid, the tail is arranged to prop the bird, like a bracket.

The tail is rounded in shape and the middle feathers have rather strong quills; but the secret of the adhesion of the tail to the bark lies in the great profusion of barbs which, at the edge of the feathers, offer bristling tips, and when applied to the side of the tree act like a wire brush with all the wires pushing downward.

This explains why the woodpecker cannot go backward without lifting the tail. But even more wonderful than this is the mechanism by which the downy and hairy woodpeckers get their food, which consists largely of wood-borers or larvae working under the bark. When the woodpecker wishes to get a grub in the wood, it seizes the bark firmly with its feet, uses its tail as a brace, throws its head and upper part of the body as far back as pos- sible, and then drives a powerful blow with its strong beak. The beak is adapted for just this purpose, as it is wedge-shaped at the end, and is used like a mason's drill sometimes, and sometimes like a pick.

When the bird uses its beak as a pick, it strikes hard, deliberate blows and the chips fly; but when it is drilling, it strikes rapidly and not so hard and quickly drills a small, deep hole leading directly to the burrow of the grub. When finally the grub is reached, it would seem well-nigh impos- sible to pull it out through a hole which is Friend Downy L. "W. Brownell too small and deep to admit of the beak being used as pincers. This is another story and a very interesting one; the downy and hairy can both extend their tongues far beyond the point of the beak, and the tip of the tongue is hard and horny and covered with short backward-slanting hooks acting like a spear or harpoon; and thus when the tongue is thrust into the grub it pulls it out easily. The bones of the tongue have a spring arrangement; when not in Friend Downy's foot use, the tongue lies soft in the mouth, like a wrinkled earthworm, but when in use?

the bones spring out, stretching it to its full length, and it is then slim and small.

The process is like fastening a pencil to the tip of a glove finger; when drawn back the finger is wrinkled together, but when thrust out, it straightens. This spring arrangement of the bones of the woodpecker's tongue is a marvelous mechanism and should be studied through pictures.

Since the food of the downy and the

Page 72 (PDF 98)

hairy is where they can get it all winter, there is no need for them to go south; thus they stay with us and work for us the entire year. We should try to make them feel at home with us in our orchards and shade trees by putting up pieces of beef fat, to convince them of their welcome.

No amount of free food will pauperize these birds, for as soon as they have eaten of the fat, they commence to hunt for grubs on the tree and thus earn their feast.

They never injure live wood.

James Whitcomb Riley describes the drumming of the woodpecker as " weedA. A. Allen Part of the tree has been cut away to show Downy's nest ing out the lonesomeness " and that is ex- actly what the drumming of the wood- pecker means. The male selects some dried limb of hard wood and there beats out his well-known signal which advertises far and near, " Wanted, a wife." And after he wins her, he still drums on for a time to cheer her while she is busy with her family cares. The woodpecker has no voice for singing, like the robin or thrush; and luckily, he does not insist on singing, like the peacock, whether he can or not. He chooses rather to devote his voice to terse and business-like conversation; and when he is musically inclined, he turns drummer. He is rather particular about his instrument, and having found one that is sufficiently resonant he returns to it day after day. While it is ordinarily the male that drums, I once observed a female drumming. I told her that she was a bold minx and ought to be ashamed of her- self; but within twenty minutes she had drummed up two red-capped suitors who chased each other about with great animosity, so her performance was evidently not considered improper in woodpecker society. I have watched a rival pair of male downies fight for hours at a time, but their duel was of the French brand — much fuss and no bloodshed. They advanced upon each other with much haughty glar- ing and many scornful bobs of the head, but when they were sufficiently near to stab each other they beat a mutual and circumspect retreat. Although we hear the male clownies drumming every spring, I doubt if they are calling for new wives; I believe they are, instead, calling the atten- tion of their lawful spouses to the fact that it is time for nest building to begin. I have come to this conclusion because the downies and hairies which I have watched for years have always come in pairs to par- take of suet during the entire winter; and while only one at a time sits at meat and the lord and master is somewhat bossy, yet they seem to get along as well as most mar- ried pairs.

The downy7 s nest is a hole, usually in a partly decayed tree; an old apple tree is a favorite site and a fresh excavation is made each year. There are from four to six white eggs, which are laid on a nice bed of chips almost as fine as sawdust. The cloor to the nest is a circle about an inch and a quarter across.

The hairy woodpecker is fully one-third larger than the downy, measuring nine inches from tip of beak to tip of tail, while the downy measures only about six inches. The tail feathers at the side are white for the entire length, while they are barred at the tips in the downy. There is a black " parting " through the middle of the red patch on the back of the hairy 's head. The two species are so much alike that it is difficult for the beginner to tell them apart. Their habits are very similar, except

Page 73 (PDF 99)

that the hairy lives in the woods and is not trunk?

so commonly seen in orchards or on shade trees. The food of the hairy is much like that of the downy; it is, therefore, a beneficial bird and should be protected. SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 55; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 15

The Downy Woodpecker

LEADING THOUGHT— The downy woodpecker remains with us all winter, feeding upon insects that are wintering in crevices and beneath the bark of our trees. It is fitted especially by shape of beak, tongue, feet, and tail to get such food and is a " friend in need " to our forest, shade, and orchard trees.

METHOD — If a piece of beef fat be fastened upon the trunk or branch of a tree which can be seen from the schoolroom windows, there will be no lack of interest in this friendly little bird; for the downy will sooner or later find this feast spread for it and will come every day to partake. Give out the questions, a few at a time, and discuss the answers with the pupils. OBSERVATIONS — i . What is the gen- eral color of the downy above and below? The color of the top of the head? Sides of the head? The throat and breast? The color and markings of the wings? Color and markings of the middle and side tail feathers?

2. Do all downy woodpeckers have the red patch at the back of the head?

3. What is the note of the downy?

Does it make any other sound? Have you ever seen one drumming? At what time of the year? On what did it drum? What did it use for a drumstick? What do you suppose was the purpose of this music?

4. How does the downy climb a tree How does it descend? How do its actions differ from those of the nut- hatch?

5. How does the arrangement of the woodpecker's toes help it in climbing a tree trunk? How does this arrangement of toes differ from that of other birds?

6. How does the downy use its tail to assist it in climbing? What is the shape of the tail and how is it adapted to assist?

7. What does the downy eat and where does it find its food? Describe how it gets at its food. What is the shape of its bill and how is it fitted for getting the food?

Tell how the downy's tongue is used to spear the grub.

8. Why do you think the downy does not go south in winter?

9. Of what use is this bird to us? How should we protect it and entice it into our orchards?

10. Write an account of how the downy builds its nest and rears its young.

A few seasons ago a downy woodpecker, probably the individual one who is now my winter neighbor, began to drum early in March in a partly decayed apple-tree that stands in the edge of a narrow strip of woodland near me. When the morning was still and mild I would often hear him through my window before I was up, or b} half-past six o'clock, and he would keep it up pretty briskly till nine or ten o'clock, in this respect resembling the grouse, which do most of their drumming in the fore- noon. His drum was the stub of a dry limb about the size of one's wrist. The heart was decayed and gone, but the outer shell was loud and resonant. The bird would keep his position there for an hour at a time. Between his drummings he would preen his plumage and listen as if for the response of the female, or for the drum of some rival. How swift his head would go when he was delivering his blows upon the limb/ His bealc wore the surface percep- tibly. When he wished to change the key, which was quite often, he would shift his position an inch or two to a knot which gave out a higher, shriller note. When I climbed up to examine his drum he was

Page 74 (PDF 100)

74 Animals

much disturbed. I did not know he was in the vicinity, but it seems he saw me from a near tree, and came in haste to the neigh- boring branches, and with spread plumage and a sharp note demanded plainly enough what my business was with his drum. I was invading his privacy, dese- crating his shrine, and the bird was much put out. After some weeks the female ap- peared; he had literally drummed up a mate; his urgent and oft-repeated adver- tisement was answered. Still the drumming did not cease, but was quite as fer- vent as before. If a mate could be won by drumming she could be kept and enter- tained by more drumming; courtship should not end with marriage. If the bird felt musical before, of course he felt much more so now. Besides that, the gentle deities needed propitiating in behalf of the nest and young as well as in behalf of the mate. After a time a second female came, when there was war between the two. I did not see them come to blows, but I saw one female pursuing the other about the place, and giving her no rest for several days. She was evidently trying to run her out of the neighborhood. Now and then she, too, would drum briefly as if sending a triumphant message to her mate. — - " WINTER NEIGHBORS/' JOHN BURROUGHS

The Sapsucker

L. A. Fuertes The yellow-bellied sapsucker The sapsucker is a woodpecker that has strayed from the paths of virtue; he has fallen into temptation by the wayside, and instead of drilling a hole for the sake of the grub at the end of it, he drills for drink. He is a tippler, and sap is his bev- erage; and he is also fond of the soft, inner bark. He often drills his holes in regular rows and thus girdles a limb or a tree, and for this is pronounced a rascal by men who have themselves ruthlessly cut from our land millions of trees that should now be standing. It is amusing to see a sap- sucker take his tipple, unless his saloon happens to be one of our prized young trees. He uses his bill as a pick and makes the chips fly as he taps the tree; then he goes away and taps another tree. After a time he comes back and holding his beak close to the hole for a long time seems to be sucking up the sap; he then throws back his head and " swigs " it down with every sign of delirious enjoyment. The avidity with which these birds come to the bleeding wells which they have made, lias in it all the fierceness of a toper crazy for drink; they are particularly foncl of the sap of the mountain ash, apple, thorn apple, canoe birch, cut-leaf birch, red maple, red oak, white ash, and young pines. How- ever, the sapsucker does not live solely on sap; he also feeds upon insects whenever he can find them. When feeding their young, the sapsuckers are true flycatchers snatching insects while on the wing. The male has the crown and throat crimson, edged with black with a black line extend-

Page 75 (PDF 101)

ing back of the eye, bordered with white tree? If there are two rows or more, are the 75 above and below. There is a large, black holes set evenly one below another?

circular patch on the breast which is bor- ~ " dered at the sides and below with lemon yellow. The female is similar to the male and has a red forehead, but she has a white bib instead of a red one beneath the chin. The distinguishing marks of the sap- sucker should be learned by the pupils. The red is on the front of the head instead of on the crown, as is the case with the 2. Do the holes sink into the wood, or are they simply through the bark? Why does it injure or kill a tree to be girdled with these holes? Have you ever seen the did sapsuckers they act? making these'holes? If so, how 3. How many kinds of trees can you find punctured by these holes? Are they likely to be young trees?

downy and hairy; when the bird is flying 4. How can you distinguish the sap- the broad, white stripes extending from sucker from the other woodpeckers? How the shoulders backward, form a long, oval have the hairy and downy which are such figure, which is very characteristic.

The sapsuckers spend the winter in the southern states where they drill wells in the white oak and other trees. From Virginia to northern New York and New England, where they breed, they are seen only during migration, which occurs in April; then the birds appear two and three together and are very bold in attacking shade trees, especially the white birch.

They nest only in the northern United States and northward. The nest is usually In the following winter the same bird a hole in a tree about forty feet from the (a sapsuclcer) tapped a maple-tree in front ground, and is likely to be in a dead birch, of my window in fifty-six places; and,

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird when the day was sunny and the sap oozed Leaflet 102; also, readings on pages 28-29. out he spent most of his time there. He knew the good sap-days, and was on hand promptly for his tipple; cold and cloudy days he did not appear. He knew which side of the tree to tap, too, and avoided the sunless northern exposure. When one series of well-holes failed to supply him, he would sink another, drilling through the barfc with great ease and quickness. Then, when the day was warm, and the sap ran freely, he would have a regular sugar-maple debauch, sitting there by his wells hour after hour, and as fast as they became filled sipping out the sap. This he good friends of the trees been made to suffer for the sapsucker's sins? 5. What is the color of the sapsucker: forehead, sides of head, back, wings, throat, upper and lower breast? What is the difference in color between the male and female?

6. In what part of the country do the sapsuckers build their nests? Where do they make their nests and how?

Lesson 16

The Sapsucker

LEADING THOUGHT — The sapsucker has a red cap, a red bib, and a yellow breast; it is our only woodpecker that does injury to trees. We should learn to distinguish it from the downy and hairy, as the latter are among the best bird friends of the trees.

METHOD — Let the observations begin with the study of the trees (common almost everywhere) which have been at- tacked by the sapsucker, and thus lead to an interest in the culprit.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Have you seen the work of the sapsucker? Are the holes

drilled in rows completely around the did in a gentle, caressing manner that was very suggestive. He made a row of wells near the foot of the tree, and other rows higher up, and he would hop up and down the trunk as they became filled. — " WINTER NEIGHBORS/' JOHN BURROUGHS

Page 76 (PDF 102)

The Redheaded Woodpecker

The redhead is well named, for his helmet and visor show a vivid glowing crim- son that stirs the sensibilities of the color lover. It is readily distinguished from the other woodpeckers because its entire head and bib are red. For the rest, it is a beauti- ful dark metallic blue with the lower back, a band across the wing, and the under parts white; its outer tail feathers are tipped with white. The female is colored like the L. A. Fuertes The redheaded woodpecker male, but the young have the head and breast gray, streaked with black and white, and the wings barred with black. It may make its nest by excavating a hole in a tree or a stump or even in a telegraph pole; the eggs are glossy white. This woodpecker is quite different in habits from the hairy and downy, as it likes to flit along from stump to fence post and catch insects on the wing, like a flycatcher. The only time that it pecks wood is when it is making a hole for its nest.

As a drummer, the redhead is most adept and his roll is a long one. He is an adaptable fellow, and if there is no reso- nant dead limb at hand, he has been known to drum on tin roofs and lightning rods; and once we also observed him executing a most brilliant solo on the wire of a barbed fence. He is especially fond of beechnuts and acorns, and being a thrifty fellow as well as musical, in time of plenty he stores up food against time of need. He places his nuts in crevices and forks of the branches or in holes in trees or any other hiding place. He can shell a beechnut quite as cleverly as can the deer mouse; and he is own cousin to the carpenter woodpecker of the Pacific Coast, which is also redheaded and which drills holes in the oak trees wherein he drives acorns like pegs for later use. SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 43; Mother Nature Series, by Fan- nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 17

The Redheaded Woodpecker

LEADING THOUGHT — The redheaded woodpecker has very different habits from the downy and is not so useful to us. It lives upon nuts and fruit and such insects as it can catch upon the wing.

METHOD — If there is a redhead in the vicinity of your school the children will be sure to see it. Write the following questions upon the blackboard and offer a prize to the first one who will make a note on where the redhead stores his winter food.

OBSERVATIONS— - 1. Can you tell the

redhead from the other woodpeckers?

What colors especially mark his plumage? 2. Where does the redhead nest? Describe eggs and nest.

Page 77 (PDF 103)

3. What have you observed the red- head eating? Have you noticed it storing nuts and acorns for the winter? Have you noticed it flying off with cherries or other fruit?

4. What is the note of the redhead?

Have you ever seen one drumming? What did he use for a drum? Did he come back often to this place to make his music?

Another trait our woodpeckers have that endears them to me, and that has never been pointedly noticed by our orni- thologists, is their habit of drumming in the spring. They are songless birds, and yet all are musicians; they make the dry limbs eloquent of the coming change. Did you think that loud, sonorous hammering which proceeded from the orchard or from the near woods on that still March or April morning was only some bird getting its breakfast? It is downy, but he is not rap- ping at the door of a grub; he is rapping at the door of spring, and the dry limb thrills beneath the ardor of his blows. Or7 later in the season, in the dense forest or by some remote mountain lake, does that meas- ured rhythmic beat that breaks upon the silence, first three strokes following each other rapidly, succeeded by two louder ones with longer intervals between them, and that has an effect upon the alert ear as if the solitude itself had at last found a voice — does that suggest anything less than a deliberate musical performance? In fact, our woodpeckers are /ust as charac- teristically drummers as is the ruffed grouse, and they have their particular limbs and stubs to which they resort for that purpose. Their need of expression is apparently just as great as that of the song- birds, and it is not surprising that they should have found out that there is music in a dry, seasoned limb which can be evoked beneath their beaks.

The woodpeckers do not each have a particular dry limb to which they resort at all times to drum, like the one I have de- scribed. The woods are fall of suitable branches, and they drum more or less here and there as they are in quest of food; yet I am convinced each one has its favorite spot, like the grouse, to which it resorts, es- pecially in the morning. The sugar-maker in the maple woods may notice that this sound proceeds from the same tree or trees about his camp with great regularity. A woodpecker in my vicinity has drummed for two seasons on a telegraph-pole? and he makes the wires and glass insulators ring. Another drums on a thin board on the end of a long grape-arbor, and on still' mornings can be heard a long distance. A friend of mine in a Southern city tells me of a redheaded woodpecker that drums upon a lightning-rod on his neighbor's house. Nearly every clear, still morn- ing at certain seasons, he says, this musical rapping may be heard. " He alternates his tapping with his stridulous call, and the effect on a cool, autumn-like morning is very pleasing." — " BIRDS, BEES AND SHARP EYES/' JOHN BURROUGHS

The Flicker Or Yellow-Hammer

The first time I ever saw a flicker I said, " What a wonderful meadowlark and what is it doing on that ant hill? " But an- other glance revealed to me a red spot on the back of the bird's neck, and as soon as I was sure that it was not a bloody gash, I knew that it marked no meadowlark.

The top of the flicker's head and its back are slaty-gray, which is much enlivened by a bright red band across the nape of the neck. The tail is black above and yellow tipped with black below; the wings are black, but have a beautiful luminous yellow beneath, which is very noticeable dur- ing flight. There is a locket adorning the breast; it is a thin, black crescent, much narrower than that of the meadowlark.

Below the locket, the breast is yellowish white thickly marked with circular, black spots. The throat and sides of the head

Page 78 (PDF 104)

Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.

A brood of seven young flickers are pinkish brown, and the male has a black mustache extending backward from the beak with a very fashionable droop.

Naturally enough the female, although she resembles her spouse, lacks his mus- tache. The beak is long, strong, somewhat curved and dark colored. This bird is distinctly larger than the robin. The white patch on the rump shows little or not at all when the bird is at rest. This white mark is known as a " color call " — for it has been said that it serves as a rear signal by means of which the flock of migrating birds are able to keep together in the night. The yellow-hammer's flight is wave- like and jerky — quite different from that of the meadowlark; it does not stay so constantly in the meadows, but often fre- quents woods and orchards.

The flicker has many names, such as golden-winged woodpecker, yellow-hammer, highhole, yarup, wake-up, clape, and many others. It earned the name of high- hole because of its habit of excavating its nest high up in trees, usually between ten and twenty-five feet from the ground. It especially loves an old apple tree as a site for a nest, and most of our large old orchards can boast of a pair of these hand- some birds during the nesting season of May and June. The flicker is not above renting any house he finds vacant, exca- vated by some other birds last year. He earned his name of yarup or wake-up from his spring song, which is a rollicking, jolly " wick-a, wick-a, wick-a-wick " — a song commonly heard the last of March or early April. The chief insect food of the flicker is ants, although it also eats beetles, flies, and wild fruit; it does little or no damage to planted crops. Its tongue has become modified, like that of the anteater; it is long and is covered with a sticky sub- stance; and when it is thrust into an ant hill, all of the little citizens, disturbed in their communal labors, at once bravely attack the intruder and become glued fast to it; they are thus withdrawn and trans- ferred to the capacious stomach of the bird. It has been known to eat three thousand ants at a single meal. Those who have observed the flicker during the courting season declare him to be the most silly and vain of all bird wooers. Mr. Baskett says: "When he wishes to charm his sweetheart he mounts a small twig near her, and lifts his wings, spreads his tail, and begins to nod right and left as he exhibits his mustache to his charmer. He sets his jet locket first on one side of the twig and then on the other.

He may even go so far as to turn his head half around to show her the pretty spot A. A. Allen The male 'flicker has a black mustache

Page 79 (PDF 105)

on his back hair. In doing all this he per- forms the most ludicrous antics and has the silliest expression of face and voice as if in losing his heart, as some one phrases it, he had lost his head also." The nest hole is quite deep and the white eggs are from four to ten in number. The feeding of the young flickers is a process painful to watch. The parent takes the food into its own stomach and par- tially digests it, then thrusts its own bill down the throat of the young one and pumps the soft food into it "kerchug, kerchug," until it seems as if the young one must be shaken to its foun- dations. The young flickers as soon as they leave the nest climb around freely on the home tree in a delightful, playful manner.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 5; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; First Lessons in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch; Na- ture and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 5, Science at Home; also, readings on pages 28-29. Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr. The female flicker Stanley Mythaler The homes of flickers

Lesson 18

The Flicker

LEADING THOUGHT — The flicker is a true woodpecker but has changed its habits and spends much of its time in mead- ows hunting for ants and other insects; it makes its nest in trunks of trees, like its relatives. It can be distinguished from the meadowlark by the white patch above the tail which shows during flight.

METHOD — This is one of the most important of the birds of the meadow. The work may be done in September, when there are plenty of young flickers which have not learned to be wary. The observations may be made in the field, a few questions being given at a time.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where do you find the flicker in the summer and early

autumn? How can you tell it from the meadowlark in color and in flight?

2. What is it doing in the meadows?

How does it manage to trap ants?

3. What is the size of the flicker as com- pared to the robin? What is its general color as compared to the meadowlark?

4. Describe the colors of the flicker as follows: top and sides of the head, back of the neck, lower back, tail, wings, throat, and breast. Describe the color and shape of the beak. Is there a difference in markings between the males and females?

Page 80 (PDF 106)

8o ANIMALS 5. Does the patch of white above the tail show, except when the bird is flying? Of what use is this to the bird?

6. What is the flicker's note? At what time of spring do you hear it first?

7. Where does the flicker build its nest and how? What is the color of the eggs?

How many are there?

8. How does it feed its young? How do the young flickers act?

9. How many names do you know for the flicker?

The high-hole appears to drum more promiscuously than does the downy. He utters his long, loud spring call, whickwhick-whick, and then begins to rap with his beak upon his perch before the last note has reached your ear. I have seen him drum sitting upon the ridge of the barn.

The log-code, or pileated woodpecker, the largest and wildest of our Northern spe- cies, I have never heard drum. His blows should wake the echoes.

When the woodpecker is searching for food, or laying siege to some hidden grub, the sound of his hammering is dead or muffled, and is heard but a few yards. It is only upon dry, seasoned timber, freed of its bark, that he beats his reveille to spring and woos his mate. — " BIRDS, BEES AND

Sharp Eyes," John Burroughs

The Meadowlark

The meadowlark L. A. Fuertes The first intimation we have in early spring that the meadowlark is again with us comes to us through his soft, sweet, sad note which Van Dyke describes so graphically when he says it " leaks slowly upward from the ground." One wonders how a bird can express happiness in these melancholy, sweet, slurred notes, and yet undoubtedly it is a song expressing joy, the joy of returning home, the happiness of love and of nest building.

The meadowlark, as is indicated by its name, is a bird of the meadow. It is often confused with another bird of the meadow which has very different habits, the flicker.

The two are approximately of the same size and color and each has a black cres- cent or locket on the breast and each shows the " white feather " during flight. The latter is the chief distinguishing char- acteristic; the outer tail feathers of the meadowlark are white, while the tail feath- ers of the flicker are not white at all, but it has a single patch of white on the rump.

The flight of the two is quite different.

The lark lifts itself by several sharp move- ments and then soars smoothly over the course, while the flicker makes a continuous up-and-down, wavelike flight. The songs of the two would surely never be confused, for the meadowlark is among our sweetest singers, to which class the flicker with his " flick-a-flick " hardly be- longs.

The colors of the meadowlark are most harmonious shades of brown and yellow, well set off by the black locket on its breast. Its wings are light brown, each feather being streaked with black and brown; the line above the eye is yellow, bordered with black above and below; a

Page 81 (PDF 107)

81 buff line extends from the beak backward over the crown. The wings are light brown and have a mere suggestion of white bars; portions of the outer feathers on each side of the tail are white, but this white does not show except during flight. The sides of the throat are greenish, the middle part and breast are lemon-yellow, with the large, black crescent just below the throat.

The beak is long, strong, and black, and the meadowlark is decidedly a low-browed bird, the forehead being only slightly higher than the upper part of the beak. It is a little larger than the robin, which it rivals in plumpness.

The meadowlark has a particular liking for meadows which border streams. It sings when on the ground, on the bush or fence and while on the wing; and it sings during the entire period of its northern stay, from April to November, ex- cept while it is moulting in late summer, Mr. Mathews, who is an eminent authority on bird songs, says that the meadowlarks of New York have a different song from those of Vermont or Nantucket, although the music has always the same general characteristics. The western spe- cies has a longer and more complex song than ours of the East. It is one of the few California birds that is a genuine joy to the eastern visitor; during February and March its heavenly music is as pervasive as the California sunshine.

The meadowlark's arched nest R. W. Hegner A father prairie horned lark at his nest. These birds nest in early March, and often snow falls on the nest and brooding bird The nest is built in a depression in the ground near a tuft of grass; it is con- structed of coarse grass and sticks and is lined with finer grass; there is usually a dome of grass blades woven above the nest; and often a long, covered vestibule leading to the nest is made in a similar fashion. This is evidently for protection from the keen eyes of hawks and crows.

The eggs are laid about the last of May and are usually from five to seven in number; they are white, speckled with brown and purple. The young meadowlarks are usually large enough to be out of the way before haying time in July.

The food of the meadowlark during the entire year consists almost exclusively of insects which destroy the grass of our meadows. It eats great quantities of grasshoppers, cutworms, chinch bugs, army worms, wireworms, and weevils, and also destroys some weed seeds. Each pupil should make a diagram in his notebook showing the proportions of the meadowlark's different kinds of food. This may be copied from Audubon Leaflet 3. Everyone should use his influence to the uttermost to protect this valuable bird. It has been estimated that the meadowlarks save to every township where hay is produced, twenty-five dollars each year on this crop alone.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflets 3 and 111; Holiday Meadow, by Edith M. Patch; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Page 82 (PDF 108)

82 Animals

Lesson 19

The Meadowlark

LEADING THOUGHT — The meadowlark is of great value in delivering the grass of our meadows from insect destroyers. It has a song which we all know; it can be iden- tified by color as a large, light brown bird with white feathers on each side of the tail, and in flight by its quick up-and- down movements finishing with long, low, smooth sailing.

METHOD — September and October are good months for observations on the flight, song, and appearance of the mead- owlark, and also for learning how to dis- tinguish it from the flicker. The notes must be made by the pupils in the field, and after they know the bird and its song let them, if they have opportunity, study the bird books and bulletins, and prepare written accounts of the way the meadow- lark builds its nest and of its economic value.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you seen the meadowlark? Did you ever see it

in the woods? Describe its flight. How can you identify it by color when it is flying?

How do its white patches and its flight dif- fer from those of the flicker?

2. Try to imitate the meadowlarFs notes by song or whistle. Does it sing while on the ground, or on a bush or fence, or during flight?

3. Note the day when you hear its last song in the fall and also its first song in the spring. Does it sing during August and September? Why? Where does it spend the winter? On what does it feed while in the South?

4. Is the meadowlark larger or smaller than the robin? Describe from your own observations, as far as possible, the colors of the meadowlark as follows: top of head, line above the eye, back, wings, tail, throat, breast, locket, color and shape of beak. Make a sketch of your own or a copy from Louis Fuertes7 excellent picture of the meadowlark in the Audubon Leaflet, and color it accurately.

5. When is the nest built; where is it placed; of what material is it built? How is it protected from sight from above? Why this protection? How many eggs are there in the nest? What are their colors and markings?

6. What is the food of the meadowlark? Copy the diagram from the Audu- bon Leaflet, showing the proportions of the different kinds of insects which it de- stroys.

Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O happy that I am!

(Listen to the meadow-larks, across the fields that sing/) Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O subtle breath of balm, O winds that blow, O buds that grow, O rapture of the spring/ Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O happy world that is/ ' Dear heart, I hear across the fields my mateling pipe and call Sweet, sweet, sweet/ O world so full of bliss, For life is love, the world is love, and love is overall/ — INA COOLBRITH

Page 83 (PDF 109)

English sparrows at a feeding station S. A. Grimes

The English Sparrow

So dainty in plumage and hue, A study in grey and in brown? How little, how little we knew The pest he would prove to the town/ From dawn until daylight grows dim.

Perpetual chatter and scold.

No winter migration for him, Not even afraid of the cold/ Scarce a song-bird he fails to molest, Belligerent, meddlesome thing/ Wherever he goes as a guest He is sure to remain as a King. — MARY ISABELLA FORSYTH The English sparrow, like the poor and the housefly, is always with us; and since he is here to stay, let us make him useful if we can devise any means of doing so.

There is no bird that gives the pupils a more difficult exercise in describing colors and markings than does he; and his wife is almost equally difficult. I have known fairly skilled ornithologists to be misled by some variation in color of the hen sparrow, and it is safe to assert that the majority of people " do not know her from Adam/' The male has the top of the head gray with a patch of reddish brown on either side; the middle of the throat and upper breast is black; the sides of the throat white; the lower breast and under parts grayish white; the back is brown streaked with black; the tail is brown, rather short, and not notched at the tip; the wings are brown with two white bars and a jaunty dash of reddish brown. The female has the head grayish brown, the breast, throat, and under parts grayish white; the back is brown streaked with black and dirty yellow, and she is, on the whole, a " washed out " looking lady bird. The differences in color and size between the English sparrow and the chippy are quite noticeable, as the chippy is an inch

Page 84 (PDF 110)

84 Animals

shorter and far more slender in appearance, and is especially marked by the red- dish brown crown.

When feeding, the English sparrows are aggressive, and their lack of table manners make them the " goops " among all birds; in the winter they settle in noisy flocks on the street to pick up the grain undigested by the horses, or in barnyards where the grain has been scattered by the farm animals. They only eat weed seeds when other food fails them in the winter, for they are civilized birds even if they do not act so, and they much prefer the culti- vated grains. It is only during the nesting season that they destroy insects to any extent; over one-half the food of nestlings is insects, such as weevils, grasshoppers, cutworms, etc.; but this good work is largely offset by the fact that these same nestlings will soon give their grown-up energies to attacking grain fields, taking the seed after sowing, later the new grain in the milk, and later still the ripened grain in the sheaf. Wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, sorghum, and rice are thus at- tacked. Once I saw on the upper Nile a native boat loaded with millet which was attacked by thousands of sparrows; when driven off by the sailors they would perch on the rigging like flies, and as soon as the men turned their backs they would drop like bullets to the deck and gobble the grain before they were again driven off.

English sparrows also destroy for us the buds and blossoms of fruit trees and often attack the ripening fruit.

The introduction of the English spar- row into America is one of the greatest arguments possible in favor of nature-study; for ignorance of nature-study methods in this single instance costs the United States millions of dollars every year. The English sparrow is the European house sparrow, and people had a theory that it was an insect eater, but never took the pains to ascertain if this theory were a fact.

About 1850, some people with more zeal than wisdom introduced these birds into New York, and for twenty years after- wards there were other importations of the sparrows. In twenty years more, people discovered that they had taken great pains to establish in our country one of the worst nuisances in all Europe. In addition to all the direct damage which the English sparrows do, they are so quarrelsome that they have driven away many of our native beneficial birds from our premises, and now vociferously acclaim their presence in places which were once the haunts of birds with sweet songs. After they drive off the other birds they quarrel among them- selves, and there is no rest for tired ears in their vicinity. There are various noises made by these birds which we can under- stand if we are willing to take the pains: the harassing chirping is their song; they squall when frightened and peep plaintively when lonesome, and make a dis- agreeable racket when fighting.

But to "give the devil his due" we must admit that the house sparrow is as clever as it is obnoxious, and its success is doubtless partly due to its superior clever- ness and keenness. It is quick to take a hint, if sufficiently pointed; firing a shot- gun twice into a flock of these birds has driven them from our premises; and tear- ing down their nests assiduously for a month seems to convey to them the idea that they are not welcome. Another in- stance of their cleverness I witnessed one day: I was watching a robin, worn and nervous with her second brood, fervently hunting earthworms in the lawn to fill the gaping mouths in the nest in the Virginia creeper shading the piazza. She finally pulled up a large, pink worm, and a hen sparrow flew at her viciously; the robin dropped the worm to protect herself, and the sparrow snatched it and carried it off triumphantly to the grape arbor where she had a nest of her own full of gaping mouths. She soon carne back, and at a safe distance watched the robin pull out another worm, and by the same tactics again gained the squirming prize. Three times was this repeated in an hour, and then the robin, discouraged, flew up into a Norway spruce and in a monologue of sullen duckings tried to reason out what had happened.

The English sparrow's nest is quite in

Page 85 (PDF 111)

keeping with the bird's other qualities; it is usually built in a hole or box or in some protected corner beneath the eaves; it is also often built in vines on buildings and occasionally in trees. It is a good example of " fuss and feathers "; coarse straw, or any other kind of material, and feathers of hens or of other birds, mixed together without fashion or form, constitute the nest. In these sprawling nests the whitish, brown or gray-flecked eggs are laid and the young reared; several broods are reared by one pair in a season. The nesting begins almost as soon as the snow is off the ground and lasts until late fall.

During the winter, the sparrows gather in flocks in villages and cities, but in the spring they scatter out through the coun- try where they can find more grain. The only place where this bird is welcome is possibly in the heart of a great city, where no other bird could pick up a livelihood. It is a true cosmopolite and is the first bird to greet the traveler in Europe or northern Africa. These sparrows will not build in boxes suspended by a wire; and they do not like a box where there is no resting place in front of the door leading to the nest.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 90; Bird Friends, by Gilbert H. Trafton; English Sparrow Control (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Leaflet 61); Lives of the Hunted, by Ernest Thompson Seton (A Street Troubadour); Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; see also readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 20

The English Sparrow

LEADING THOUGHT — The English sparrow was introduced into America by peo- ple who knew nothing of its habits. It has finally overrun our whole country, and to a great extent has driven out from towns and villages our useful American song birds; it should be discouraged and not allowed to nest around our houses and A. A. Allen The sprawling nest of the English sparrow grounds. As a sparrow it has interesting habits which we should observe.

METHOD — Let the pupils make their observations in the street or wherever they find the birds. The greatest value of this lesson is to teach the pupils to observe the coloring and markings of a bird accurately and describe them clearly. This is the best of training for later work with the wild birds.

OBSERVATIONS — i. How many kinds of

birds do you find in a flock of English spar- rows? 2. The ones with the black cravat are naturally the men of the family, while their sisters, wives, and mothers are less ornamented. Describe in your notebook or from memory the colors of the cock sparrow as follows: top of head, sides of the head, the back, the tail, the wings, wing bars, throat and upper breast, lower breast and under parts.

3 . Describe the hen sparrow in the same manner and note the difference in markings between the two. Are the young birds, when they first fly, like the father or the mother?

4. Compare the English sparrow with the chippy and describe the differences in size and color.

5. Is the tail when the bird is not flying square across the end or notched?

Page 86 (PDF 112)

86 Animals

6. What is the shape of the beak? For what sort of food is it adapted?

7. What is the food of the English sparrows and where do they find it? De- scribe the actions of a flock feeding in the yard or street. Are the English sparrows kindly or quarrelsome in disposition?

8. Why do the English sparrows stay in the North during the coldest of win- ters? Do they winter out in the country or in villages?

9. Describe by observation how they try to drive away robins or other native birds.

10. Describe the nest of this sparrow.

Of what material is it made? How is it supported? How sheltered? Is it a well-built nest?

11. Describe the eggs. How many broods are raised a year? What kind of food do the parents generally give the nestlings?

12. If you have ever seen these sparrows do anything interesting, describe the cir- cumstance.

13. In what ways are these birds a nui- sance to us?

14. How much of English sparrow talk do you understand?

15. How can we build bird-boxes so that the English sparrows will not try to take possession of them?

Do not tire the child with questions; lead him to question you, instead. Be sure, in any case, that he is more interested in the subject than in the questions about the subject.

The Chipping Sparrow

Leonard K. Beyer A chipping sparrow on its nest , This midget lives in our midst, and yet among all bird kind there is not another which so ignores us as does the chippy. It builds its nest about our houses, it hunts for food all over our premises, it sings like a tuneful grasshopper in our ears, it brings up its young to disregard us, and every hour of the day it " tsiptsips " us to scorn. And, although it has well earned the name of " doorstep sparrow/' since it frugally gathers the crumbs about our kitchen doors, yet it rarely be- comes tame or can be induced to eat from the hand, unless it is trained so to do as a nestling.

Its cinnamon-brown cap and tiny black forehead, the gray streak over the eye and the black through it, the gray cheeks and the pale gray, unspotted breast distinguish it from the other sparrows, although its brown back streaked with darker coloi, and brown wings and blackish tail, have a very sparrowish look; the two whitish wing bars are not striking; it has a bill fitted for shelling seeds, a characteristic of all the sparrows. Despite its seed-eating bill, the chippy's food is about one-third insects, and everyone should know that this little bird does good to our gardens and trees.

It takes in large numbers cabbage caterpillars, pea lice, the beet leaf-miners, leaf hoppers, grasshoppers, and cutworms, and does its share in annihilating the cater- pillars of the terrible gypsy and browntail moths. In fact, it works for our benefit even in its vegetable food, as this consists

Page 87 (PDF 113)

largely of the seeds of weeds and undesirable grasses. It will often fly up from its perch after flies or moths/ like a fly- catcher; and the next time we note it, it will be hopping around hunting for the crumbs we have scattered for it on the porch floor. The song of the chippy is more interesting to it than to us; it is a continuous performance of high? shrill, rapid notes, all alike so far as I can detect; when it utters many of these in rapid succession it is singing, but when it gives them singly they are call notes or mere conversation.

One peculiarity of the nest has given this sparrow the common name of hairbird, for the lining is almost always of long, coarse hair, usually treasure trove from the tails of horses or cattle, switched off against boards, burs, or other obstacles.

Of the many nests I have examined, black horsehair was the usual lining; but two nests in our yard show the chippy to be a resourceful bird; evidently the hair mar- ket was exhausted and the soft, dead needles of the white pine were used in- stead and made a most satisfactory lining.

The nest is tiny and shallow; the outside is of fine grass or rootlets carefully but not closely woven together; it is placed A. A. Allen A cowbird laid the large egg in Ihis chipping sparrow's nest. The cowbird depends upon other birds to brood its eggs and care for its young A. A. Allen " The breadline!' Young chipping sparrows being fed by one of their parents in vine or tree, usually not more than ten or fifteen feet from the ground; a vine on a house is a favorite nesting site.

Once a bold pair built directly above the entrance to our front door and mingled cheerfully with other visitors. Usually, however, the nest is so hidden that it is not discovered until after the leaves have fallen. The eggs are light blue tinged with green, with fine, purplish brown specks or markings scrawled about the larger end.

The chippy comes to us in early spring and usually raises two broods of from three to five " piggish " youngsters, which even after they are fully grown follow pertinaciously their tired and " frazzled out " parents and beg to be fed; the chippy parents evidently have no idea of disci- pline but indulge their teasing progeny until our patience, at least, is exhausted.

The young differ from the parents in having streaked breasts and lacking the red- dish crown. In the fall the chippy parents lose their red-brown caps and have streaked ones instead; and then they fare forth in flocks for a seed-harvest in the fields. Thereafter our chippy is a stranger to us; we do not know it in its new garb, and it dodges into the bushes as we pass, as if it had not tested our harmlessness on our own door-stone. SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 80; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox-

Page 88 (PDF 114)

ell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 21

The Chipping Sparrow

LEADING THOUGHT — The chipping sparrow is a cheerful and useful little neighbor. It builds a nest, lined with horsehair, in the shrubbery and vines about our homes and works hard in ridding our gardens of insect pests and seeds of weeds.

METHOD — Begin this lesson with a nest of the chippy, which is so unmistakable that it may be collected and identi- fied in the winter. Make the study of this nest so interesting that the pupils will wait anxiously to watch for the birds which made it. As soon as the chippies appear, the questions should be asked, a few at a time, giving the children several weeks for the study. THE NEST

OBSERVATIONS — i . Where was this

nest found? How high from the ground? 2. Was it under shelter? How was it supported? 3. Of what material is the outside of the nest? How is it fastened together?

How do you suppose the bird wove this material together?

4. Of what material is the lining? Why is the bird that built this nest called the " hair-bird "? From what animal do you think the lining of the nest came? How do you suppose the bird got it?

5. Do you think the nest was well hid- den when the leaves were about it? Measure the nest across and also its depth; do you think the bird that made it is as large as the English sparrow?

The Bird

6. How can you tell the chippy from the English sparrow? 7. Describe the colors of the chippy as follows: beak, forehead, crown, marks above and through the eyes, cheeks, throat, breast, wings, and tail. Note if the wings have whitish bars and how many.

8. Describe the shape of the beak as compared with that of the robin. What is this shaped bill adapted for? 9. What is the food of the chippy?

Why has it been called the doorstep sparrow? 10. Note whether the chippy catches flies or moths on the wing like the phcebe. 1 1 . Why should we protect the chippy and try to induce it to live near our gardens? 12. Does it run or hop when seeking food on the ground?

13. How early in the season does the chippy appear and where does it spend the winter?

14. Can you describe the chippy's song? How do you think it won the name of chipping sparrow? 15. If you have the luck to find a pair of chippies nesting, keep a diary of your observations in your notebook covering the following points: Do both parents build the nest? Flow is the framework laid? How is the finishing done? What is the number and color of the eggs? Do both parents feed the young? How do young chippies act when they first leave the nest? How large are the young birds before the parents stop feeding them? What are the differences in color and markings between parents and young?

The Field-Sparrow

A bubble of music floats, the slope of the hillside over; A little wandering sparrow's notes; and the bloom of yarrow and clover, And the smell of sweet-fern and the bay- berry leaf, on his ripple of song are stealing, For he is a cheerful thief, the wealth of the fields revealing.

One syllable, clear and soft as a raindrop's silvery patter, Or a tinkling fairy-bell; heard aloft, in the midst of the merry chatter Of robin and linnet and wren and /"ay, one syllable, oft repeated; He has but a word to say, and of that he will not be cheated.

Page 89 (PDF 115)

The singer I have not seen; but the song I arise and follow The brown hills over, the pastures green, and into the sunlit hollow.

With a joy that his life unto mine has lent, I can feel my glad eyes glisten, Though he hides in his happy tent, while I stand outside, and listen.

This way would I also sing, my dear little hillside neighbor!

A tender carol of peace to bring to the sunburnt fields of labor Is better than making a loud ado; trill on, amid clover and yarrow/ There's a heart-beat echoing you, and blessing you, blithe little sparrow/ — LUCY LARCOM

The Song Sparrow

He does not wear a Joseph's coat of many colors, smart and gay His suit is Quaker brown and gray, with darker patches at his throat.

And yet of all the well-dressed throng, not one can sing so brave a song. It makes the pride of looks appear a vain and foolish thing to hear In " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer. "

A lofty place he does not love, he sits by choice and well at ease In hedges and in little trees, that stretch their slender arms above The meadow brook; and then he sings till all the field with pleasure rings; And so he tells in every ear, that lowly homes to heaven are near In " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer." — HENRY VAN DYKE Children may commit to memory the poem from which the above stanzas were taken; seldom in literature have detailed accurate observation and poetry been so happily combined as in these verses. The lesson might begin in March when we are all listening eagerly for bird voices, and the children should be asked to look out for a little, brown bird which sings, " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer,"

or, as Thoreau interprets it, " Maids! Maids! Maids! Hang on the teakettle, teakettle-ettle-ettle." In early childhood I learned to distinguish this sparrow by its "Teakettle" song. Besides this song, it has others quite as sweet; and when alarmed it utters a sharp "Tchink, t'chinL"

The song sparrow prefers the neighborhood of brooks and ponds which are bor- dered with bushes, and also the hedges planted by nature along rail or other field fences, and it has a special liking for the shrubbery about gardens. Its movements and flight are very characteristic; it usually sits on the tip-top of a shrub or low tree when it sings; when disturbed, however, it never rises in the air but drops into a low Leonard K. Beyer The song sparrow usually builds its nest on the ground flight and plunges into a thicket with a defiant twitch of the tail which says plainly, " Find me if you can."

Page 90 (PDF 116)

A. A. Allen The eggs are bluish white with many brown markings The color and markings of this bird are typical of the sparrows. The head is a warm brown with a gray streak along the center of the crown and one above each eye, with a dark line through the eye. The back is brown with darker streaks.

The throat is white with a dark spot on either side; the breast is white spotted with brown with a large, dark blotch at its very center; this breast blotch distin- guishes this bird from all other sparrows.

The tail and wings are brown and without buff or white bars or other markings. The tail is long, rounded, and very expressive of emotions, and makes the bird look more slender than the English sparrow.

The nest is usually placed on the ground or in low bushes not more than five feet from the ground; it varies much in both size and material; it is sometimes constructed of coarse weeds and grasses; and sometimes only fine grass is used. Sometimes it is lined with hair, and again, with fine grass; sometimes it is deep, but occasionally is shallow. The eggs have a whitish ground-color tinged with blue or green, but are so blotched and marked with brown that they are safe from observation of enemies. The nesting season begins in May, and there are usually three and sometimes four broods; but so far as I have observed, a nest is never used for two consecutive broods. The song sparrows stay with us in New York State very late in the fall, and a few stay in sheltered places all winter. The quality in this bird which endears him to us all is the spirit of song which stays with him; his sweet trill may be heard almost any month of the year, and he has a charming habit of singing in his dreams. The song sparrow is not only the dearest of little neighbors, but it also works lustily for our good and for its own food at the same time. It destroys cutworms, plant lice, caterpillars, canker-worms, ground beetles, grasshoppers, and flies; in winter it destroys thousands of weed seeds, which otherwise would surely plant themselves to our undoing. Every boy and girl should take great pains to drive away stray cats and to teach the family puss not to meddle with birds; for cats are the worst of all the song sparrow's enemies, destroying thousands of its nestlings every year.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 31; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Trox- ell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 22

The Song Sparrow

LEADING THOUGHT — The beautiful song of this sparrow is usually heard earlier in the spring than the notes of bluebird or robin. The dark blotch in the center of its speckled breast distinguishes this spar- row from all others; it is very beneficial and should be protected from cats. " Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer "

Page 91 (PDF 117)

METHOD — All the observations of the song sparrow must be made in the field, and they are easily made because the bird builds near houses, in gardens, and in the shrubbery. Poetry and other literature about the song sparrow should be given to the pupils to read or to memorize.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Have you noticed a little brown bird singing a very sweet

song in the early spring? Did the song sound as if set to the words " Little Maid! Little, Maid! Little Maid! Put on the teakettle, teakettle-ettle-ettle "? 2. Where was this bird when you heard him singing? How high was he perched above the ground? What other notes did you hear him utter?

3. Describe the colors and markings of the song sparrow on head, back, throat, breast, wings, and tail. Is this bird as large as the English sparrow? What makes it look more slim?

4. How can you distinguish the song sparrow from the other sparrows? When disturbed does it fly up or down? How does it gesture with its tail as it disappears in the bushes?

5. Where and of what material does the song sparrow build its nest?

6. What colors and markings are on the eggs? Do you think these colors and markings are useful in concealing the eggs when the mother bird leaves the nest?

7. How late in the season do you see the song sparrows and hear their songs?

8. How can we protect these charming little birds and induce them to build near our houses?

9. What is the food of the song spar- rows and how do they benefit our fields and gardens? Name some of the injurious insects that they eat.

The Sing-Away Bird

Have you ever heard of the Sing-away bird, That sings where the Runaway River Runs down with its rills from the bald- headed hills That stand in the sunshine and shiver?

" Oh, sing! sing-away! sing-away/ " How the pines and the birches are stirred By the trill of the Sing-away bird/ And the bald-headed hills, with their rocks and their rills, To the tune of his rapture are ringing; And mists their among, faces grow young, all the gray While the forests break forth into singing.

" Oh, sing/ sing-away/ sing-awayl " And the river runs singing along; And the flying winds catch up the song.

Twas a white-throated sparrow, that sped a light arrow Of song from his musical quiver, And it pierced with its spell every valley and dell On the banks of the Runaway River, " Oh, sing/ sing-away/ sing-away/ " The song of the wild singer had The sound of a soul that is glad. — LUCY LARCOM

The Mockingbird

Among all the vocalists in the bird world, the mockingbird is seldom rivaled in the variety and richness of his repertoire.

The mockingbirds go as far north as south- ern New England, but they are found at their best in the Southern states and in California. On the Gulf Coast the mockers begin singing in February; in warmer climates they sing almost the year through. During the nesting season, the father mocker is so busy with his cares and duties during the day that he does not have time to sing, and so he devotes the nights to serenading; he may sing almost all night long if there is moonlight, and even on dark nights he gives now and then a happy, sleepy song. Not all mock- ingbirds are mockers; some sing their own song, which is rich and beautiful; while others learn, in addition, not only the

Page 92 (PDF 118)

L. A. Fuertes The mockingbird songs of other birds, but their call notes as well. One authority noted a mocker which imitated the songs of twenty species of birds during a ten-minute performance.

When singing, the mocker shows his relationship to the brown thrasher by lift- ing the head and depressing and jerking the tail. A good mocker will learn a tune, or parts of it, if it is whistled often enough in his hearing; he will also imitate other sounds and will often improve on a song he has learned from another bird by intro- ducing frills of his own; when learning a song, he sits silent and listens intently, but will not try to sing it until it is learned.

Although the mockingbirds live in wild places, they prefer the haunts of men, taking up their home sites in gardens and cultivated grounds. Their flight is rarely higher than the tree tops and is decidedly jerky in character with much twitching of the long tail. For nesting sites, they choose thickets or the lower branches of trees, being especially fond of orange trees; the nest is usually from four to twenty feet from the ground. The foundation of the nest is made of sticks, grasses, and weed stalks interlaced and crisscrossed; on these is built the nest of softer materials, such as rootlets, horsehair, cotton, or in fact anything suitable which is at hand. The nest is often in plain sight, since the mocker trusts to his strength as a fighter to protect it. He will attack cats with great ferocity and vanquish them; he will often kill snakes; good-sized black snakes have been known to end thus; he will also drive away birds much larger than himself. In making his attack, the mocker hovers above his enemy and strikes it at the back of the head or neck.

The female lays from four to six pale greenish or bluish eggs blotched with brown which hatch in about two weeks; then comes a period of hard work for the parents, as both are indefatigable in catch- ing insects to feed the young. The mocker, by the way, is an amusing sight as he chases a beetle on the ground, lifting his wings in a pugnacious fashion. The mock- ers often raise three broods a season; the young birds have spotted breasts, showing their relationship to the thrasher.

As a wooer, the mocker is a bird of much ceremony and dances into his lady's graces. Mrs. F. W. Rowe, in describing this, says that the birds stand facing each other with heads and tails erect and wings drooping; " then the dance would begin, and this consisted of the two hopping sideways in the same direction and in rather a straight line a few inches at a * : '''''" " ' • / "I • •' >'S^*"N|jS' A. A. Allen A mockingbird on her nest in a thicket

Page 93 (PDF 119)

Birds 93

time, always keeping directly opposite each other and about the same distance apart. They would chassez this way four or five feet, then go back over the same line in the same manner/7 Mrs. Rowe also observed that the male mockers have hunting preserves of their own, not allow- ing any other males of their species in these precincts. The boundary was sus- tained by tactics of both offense and defense; but certain other species of birds were allowed to trespass without reproof.

Maurice Thompson describes in a delightful manner the " mounting " and " dropping " songs of the mocker which occur during the wooing season. The singer flits up from branch to branch of a tree, singing as he goes, and finally on the topmost bough gives his song of tri- umph to the world; then, reversing the process, he falls backward from spray to spray, as if drunk with the ecstasy of his own song, which is an exquisitely soft " gurgling series of notes, liquid and sweet, that seem to express utter rapture." The mockingbirds have the same colors in both sexes; the head is black, the back is ashy-gray; the tail and wings are so dark brown that they look black; the tail is very long and has the outer tail feathers entirely white and the two next inner ones are white for more than half their length; the wings have a strikingly broad, white bar, which is very noticeable when the bird is flying. The under parts and breast are grayish white; the beak and legs are blackish. The food of the mockingbirds is about half insects and half fruit. They live largely on the berries of the red cedar, myrtle, and holly, and we must confess are often too much devoted to the fruits in our orchards and gardens; but let us put down to their credit that they do their best to exterminate the cotton boll caterpillars and moths, and also many other insects injurious to crops.

The mocker is full of tricks and is distinctly a bird of humor. He will frighten other birds by screaming like a hawk and then seem to chuckle over the joke.

Sidney Lanier describes him well: ^f^^ii^m,,^.^ ,.._ . „

%M . ; • ^

Leonard K. Beyer The brown thrasher, a close relative of the mockingbird; is also an accomplished musi- cian Whatever could birds say. did or dreamed, tin's bird Then down lie shot, bounced airily along The made sward, song twitched in a grasshopper, Midffight, perched, prinked, and to his art again.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 41; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 23

The Mockingbird

LEADING THOUGHT — The mockingbird is the only one of our common birds that sings regularly at night. It imitates the songs of other birds and has also a beauti- ful song of its own. When feeding their nestlings, the mockers do us great service by destroying insect pests. METHOD — Studies of this bird are best made individually by the pupils through watching the mockers which haunt the houses and shrubbery. If there are mockingbirds near the schoolhouse, the work can be done in the most ideal way by keeping records in the school of all the obser- vations made by the pupils, thus bringing out an interesting mockingbird story.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Duringwhatmonths

of the year and for how many months does the mockingbird sing in this locality?

Page 94 (PDF 120)

94 Animals

2. Does he sing only on moonlight nights? Does he sing all night?

3. Can you distinguish the true mock- ingbird song from the songs which he has learned from other birds? Describe the actions of a mocker when he is sing- ing.

4. How many songs of other birds have you heard a mocker give and what are the names of these birds?

5. Have you ever taught a mocker a tune by whistling it in his presence? If so, tell how long it was before he learned it and how he acted while learning.

6. Describe the flight of the mocking- birds. Do they fly high in the air like crows?

7. Do these birds like best to live in wild places or about houses and gardens? 8. Where do they choose sites for their nests? Do they make an effort to hide the nest? If not, why?

9. Of what material is the nest made?

How is it lined? How far from the ground is it placed?

10. What are the colors of the eggs?

How many are usually laid? Flow long be- fore they hatch?

11. Give instances of the parents' de- votion to the young birds.

12. Have you seen two mockingbirds dancing before each other just before the nesting season?

13. In the spring have you heard a mocker sing while mounting from the lower to the upper branches of a tree and then after pouring forth his best song fall backward with a sweet, gurgling song as if intoxicated with his music?

14. How many broods does a pair of mockers raise during one season? How does the color of the breast of the young differ from that of the parent?

15. How does the father bird protect the nestlings from other birds, cats, and snakes?

16. Does the mocker select certain places for his own hunting grounds and drive off other mockers which trespass?

17. Describe the colors of the mocking- bird as follows: beak, head, back, tail, wings, throat, breast, under parts and feet. 18. What is the natural food of the mockingbirds and how do they benefit the farmer? How does the mocker act when attacking a ground beetle?

19. Have you seen mockingbirds frighten other birds by imitating the cry of a hawk? Have you seen them play other tricks?

20. Tell a story which includes your own observations on the ways of mocking- birds which you have known.

Soft and low the song began: I scarcely caught it as it ran Through the melancholy trill of the plaintive whip-poor-will, Through the ringdove's gentle wail, chat- tering jay and whistling quail, Sparrow's twitter, catbird's cry, redbird's whistle, robin's sigh; Blackbird, bluebird, swallow, lark, each his native note might mark.

Oft he tried the lesson o'er, each time louder than before; Burst at length the finished song, loud and clear it poured along; All the choir in silence heard, hushed be- fore this wondrous bird.

All transported and amazed, scarcely breathing, long I gazed. Now it reached the loudest swell; lower, lower, now it fell, — Lower, lower, lower still, scarce it sounded o'er the rill.

— Joseph Rodman Drake

Page 95 (PDF 121)

The Catbird

The Catbird sings a crooked song? in minors that are flat, And, when he can't control his voice he mews just like a cat. Then nods his head and whisks his tail and lets it go at that. — OLIVER DAVIE As a performer, the catbird distinctly belongs to the vaudeville, even going so far as to appear in slate-colored tights. His specialties range from the most exquisite song to the most strident of scolding notes; his nasal " n-y-a-a-h, n-y-a-a-h " is not so very much like the cat's mew after all, but when addressed to the intruder it means " get out "; and not in the whole gamut of bird notes is there another which so quickly inspires the listener with this desire. I once trespassed upon the territory of a well-grown catbird family and the squalling that ensued was ear-splitting; as I retreated, the triumphant youngsters followed me for a few rods with every sign of triumph in their actions and voices; they obviously enjoyed my apparent fright. The catbirds have rather a pleasant " cluck, cluck " when talking to each other, hidden in the bushes, and they also have a variety of other notes. The true song of the catbird, usually given in the early morning, is very beautiful. Mr.

Mathews thinks it is a medley gathered from other birds, but it seems to me very individual. However, true to his vaudeville training, this bird is likely to intro- duce into the middle or at the end of his exquisite song some phrase that suggests his cat call. He is, without doubt, a true mocker and will often imitate the robin's song, and also if opportunity offers learns to converse fluently in chicken language. One spring morning I heard outside my window the mellow song of the cardinal, which is a rare visitor in New York, but there was no mistaking the " tor-re-do, tor-re-do." I sprang from my bed and rushed to the window, only to see a catbird singing the cardinal song, and thus telling me that he had come from the sunny South and the happy companionship of these brilliant birds. Often when the catbird is singing, he sits on the topmost spray of some shrub lifting his head and depressing his tail, like a brown thrasher; and again, he sings completely hidden in the thicket.

In appearance the catbird is tailor- made, belonging to the same social class as the cedar-bird and the barn swallow.

Robert Matheson A catbird on its nest However, it affects quiet colors, and its well-fitting costume is all slate-gray except the top of the head and the tail which are black; the feathers beneath the base of the tail are brownish. The catbird is not so large as the robin, and is of very differ- ent shape; it is far more slender and has a long, emotional tail. The way the cat- bird twitches and tilts its tail, as it hops along the ground or alights in a bush, is very characteristic. It is a particularly alert and nervous bird, always on the watch for intruders, and the first to give warning to all other birds of their approach. It is a good fighter in defending its nest, and there are several observed instances where it has fought to defend the nest of other species of birds; and it has gone even

Page 96 (PDF 122)

The catbird lays three to five eggs of a rich greenish blue in a well constructed nest in a dense thicket further in its philanthropy, by feeding their orphaned nestlings.

The catbird chooses a nesting site in a low tree or shrub or brier, where the nest is built usually about four feet from the ground. The nest looks untidy, but is strongly made of sticks, coarse grass, weeds, bark strips, and occasionally paper; it is lined with soft roots and is almost always well hidden in dense foliage. The eggs are from three to five in number and are dark greenish blue. Both parents work hard feeding the young and for this pur- pose destroy many insects which we can well spare. Sixty-two per cent of the food of the young has been found in one in- stance to be cutworms, showing what a splendid work the parents do in our gar- dens. In fact, during a large part of the summer, while these birds are rearing their two broods, they benefit us greatly by de- stroying the insect pests; and although later they may attack our fruits and ber- ries, it almost seems as if they had earned the right to their share. If we only had the wisdom to plant along the fences some elderberries or Russian mulberries, the cat- birds as well as the robins would feed upon them instead of the cultivated fruits.

The catbirds afford a striking example for impressing upon children that each species of birds haunts certain kinds of places. The catbirds are not often found in deep woods or in open fields, but usu- ally near low thickets along streams, and in shrubbery along fences, in tangles of vines, and especially do they like to build about our gardens, if we protect them.

They are very fond of bathing, and if fresh water is given them for this purpose, we may have opportunity to witness the most thorough bath a bird can take. A catbird takes a long time to bathe and preen its feathers and indulges in most luxurious sun baths and thus deservedly earns the epithet of " well-groomecl "; it is one of the most intelligent of all our birds and soon learns " what is what," and repays in the most surprising way the trou- ble of careful observation.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 70; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 24

The Catbird

LEADING THOUGHT — The catbird has a beautiful song as well as the harsh " miou," and can imitate other birds, al- though not so well as the mockingbird. It builds in low thickets and shrubbery and during the nesting season is of great benefit to our gardens.

METHOD — First, let the pupils study and report upon the songs, scoldings, and other notes of this our northern mocking- bird; then let them describe its appearance and habits.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Do you think the squall of the catbird sounds like the mew of a cat? When does the bird use this note

and what for? What other notes have you heard it utter?

2. Describe as well as you can the catbird's true song. Are there any harsh notes in it? Where does he sit while singing? Describe the actions of the catbird while he is singing.

3. Have you ever heard the catbird imi-

Page 97 (PDF 123)

tate the songs of other birds or other noises?

4. Describe the catbird as follows: its size and shape compared to the robin; the color and shape of head, beak, wings, tail, breast, and under parts.

5. Describe its peculiar actions and its characteristic movements.

6. Where do catbirds build their nests?

How high from the ground? What material is used? Is the nest compact and carefully finished? Is it hidden?

7. What is the color of the eggs? Do both parents care for the young? 8. What is the food of the catbird?

Why is it an advantage to us to have catbirds build in our gardens?

9. Do you ever find catbirds in the deep woods or out in the open meadows?

Where do you find them?

10. Put out a pan of water where the catbirds can use it and then watch them make their toilets and describe the proc- ess. Describe how the catbirds take sun baths.

He sits on a branch of yon blossoming bush, This madcap cousin of robin and thrush.

And morning sings without ceasing the whole long; Now wild, now tender, the wayward song That throat; flows from his soft, gray, fluttering But often he stops in his sweetest note, And, shaking a flower from the blossom- ing bough, Drawls out, " Mi-eu, mi-ow! " — " THE CATBIRD/' EDITH M. THOMAS Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.

A family of seven young belted kingfishers that were posed for the camera

The Belted Kingfisher

This patrol of our streams and lake shores, in his cadet uniform, is indeed a military figure as well as a militant per- sonality. As he sits upon his chosen branch overhanging some stream or lake shore, his crest abristle, his keen eye fixed on the water below, his whole bearing alert, one must acknowledge that this fellow puts " ginger " into his environment, and that the spirit which animates him is very far from the " dolce far niente " which per- meates the ordinary fisherman. However,

Page 98 (PDF 124)

Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.

A moment between diggings. This male belted kingfisher hesitates on the doorstep of the nesting burrow which lie is digging. To him, rather than to his mate, falls the task of home-building he does not fish for fun but for business; his keen eye catches the gleam of a mov- ing fin and he darts from his perch, holds himself for a moment on steady wings above the surface of the water, to be sure of his quarry, and then there is a dash and a splash and he returns to his perch with the wriggling fish in his strong beak.

Usually he at once proceeds to beat its life out against a branch and then to swallow it sensibly, head first, so that the fins will not prick his throat nor the scales rasp it. He swallows the entire fish, trust- ing to his internal organs to select the nourishing part; and later he gulps up a ball of the indigestible scales and bones.

The kingfisher is very different in form from an ordinary bird; he is larger than a robin, and his head and fore parts are much larger in proportion; this is the more noticeable because of the long feathers Kingfisher's foot. This shows the weak toes; the third and fourth are joined to- gether, which undoubtedly assists the bird in pushing out soil when excavating of the head which he lifts into a crest, and because of the shortness of the tail. The beak is very long and strong, enabling the kingfisher to seize the fish and hold it fast, but the legs are short and weak. The third and fourth toes are grown together for a part of their length; this is of use to the bird in pushing earth from the bur- row, when excavating. The kingfisher has no need for running and hopping, like the robin, and therefore does not need the robin's strong legs and feet. His colors are beautiful and harmonious; the upper parts are grayish blue, the throat and collar white, as is also the breast, which has a bluish gray band across the upper part, this giving the name of the Belted King- fisher to the bird. The feathers of the wings are tipped with white and the tail feathers narrowly barred with white. The under side of the body is white in the males, while in the females it is somewhat chestnut in color. There is a striking white spot just in front of the eye.

The kingfisher parents builcl their nest in a burrow which they tunnel horizontally in a bank; sometimes there is a vesti- bule of several feet before the nest is reached, and at other times it is built very close to the opening. Both parents are industrious in catching fish for their nestlings, but the burden of this duty falls heaviest upon the male. Many fish bones are found in the nest, and they seem so clean and white that they have been regarded as nest lining. Wonderful tales are told of the way the English kingfishers use Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.

A large sharply pointed bill and a good aim behind it is all the equipment this feathered fisherman needs to catch his food

Page 99 (PDF 125)

Birds 99

fish bones to support the earth above their nests, and tributes have been paid to their architectural skill. But it is generally con- ceded that the lining of fish bones in the nests of our kingfisher is incidental, since the food of the young is largely fish, al- though frogs, insects, and other creatures are often eaten with relish. It is interesting to note the process by which the young kingfisher gets its skill in fishing. I have often seen one dive horizontally for a yard or two beneath the water and come up indignant and sputtering because the fish had escaped. It was fully two weeks more before this one learned to drop like a bullet on its quarry.

The note of the kingfisher is a loud rat- tle, not especially pleasant close at hand, but not unmusical at a little distance. It is a curious coincidence that it sounds very much like the clicking of the fisherman's reel; it is a sound that conjures visions of shade-dappled streams and the dancing, blue waters of tree-fringed lakes and ponds. There seems to be a division of fishing ground among the kingfishers, one bird rarely trespassing upon its neighbor's pre- serves. Unless it be the parent pair work- ing near each other for the nestlings, or the nestlings still under their care, we sel- dom see two kingfishers in the same im- mediate locality. SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 19; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 25

The Kingfisher

LEADING THOUGHT — The kingfisher is fitted by form of body and beak to be a fisherman.

METHOD — If the school be near a stream or pond the following observations may be made by the pupils; otherwise let the boys who go fishing make a study of the bird and report to the school.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where have you seen the kingfisher? Have you often seen it on a certain branch which is its favorite

perch? Is this perch near the water? What is the advantage of this position to the bird?

2. What does the kingfisher feed upon? How does it obtain its food? Describe the actions of one of these birds while fishing.

3. With what weapons does the king- fisher secure the fish? How long is its beak compared with the rest of its body? How does it kill the fish? Does it swallow the fish head or tail first? Why? Does it tear off the scales or fins before swallowing it?

How does it get rid of these and the bones of the fish?

4. Which is the larger, the kingfisher or the robin? Describe the difference in shape of the bodies of these two birds; also in the size and shape of feet and beaks, and explain why they are so differ- ent in form. What is there peculiar about the kingfisher's feet? Do you know which two toes are grown together?

5. What are the colors of the kingfisher in general? The colors of head, sides of head, collar, back, tail, wings, throat, breast, and under parts? Is there a white spot near the eye? If so, where? Do you know the difference in colors between the parent birds? 6. Where is the nest built? How is it lined?

7. What is the note of the kingfisher? Does it give it while perching or while on the wing? Do you ever find more than one kingfisher on the same fishing grounds?

The Kingfisher

(Of England)

For the handsome Kingfisher, go not to the tree, No bird of the field or the forest is he; In the dry river rock he did never abide, And not on the brown heath all barren and wide.

He lives are flowing, where the fresh, sparkling waters Where the tall heavy Typha and Loose- strife are growing; By the bright little streams that all joyfully run Awhile in the shadow, and then in the sun.

Page 100 (PDF 126)

ioo ANIMALS He lives in a hole that is quite to his mind, With the green mossy Hazel roots firmly entwined; Where the dark Alder-bough waves gracefully o'er, And the Sword-flag and Arrow-head grow at his door.

There busily, busily, all the day long, He seelcs for small fishes the shallows among; For he builds his nest of the pearly fish- bone, Deep, deep, in the bank, far retired, and alone.

Then the brown Water-Rat from his bur- row loots out, To see what his neighbor Kingfisher's about; And the green Dragon-fly, flitting slowly away, Just pauses one moment to bid him good- day.

O happy Kingfisher/ What care should he know, By the clear, pleasant streams, as he skims to and fro, Now lost in the shadow, now bright in the sheen Of the hot summer sun, glancing scarlet and green/ — MARY HOWITT

The Screech Owl

Disquiet yourselves not; Tis nothing but a little, downy owl. — SHELLEY Of all the sounds to be heard at night in the woods, the screech owl's song is surely the most fascinating; its fascination does not depend on music but upon the Country Life in America Screech owls chills which it sends up and down the spine of the listener, thus attacking a quite different set of nerves than do other bird songs. The weird wail, tremulous and long drawn out, although so blood-curdling, is from the standpoint of the owlet the most beautiful music in the world; by means of it he calls to his mate, cheering her with the assurance of his presence in the world; evidently she is not a nervous creature. The screech owls are likely to sing at night during any part of the year; nor should we infer that when they are singing they are not hunting, for perchance their music frightens their victims into fatal activity. Although the note is so unmistakable, yet there is great variation in the songs of in- dividuals; the great variety of quavers in the song offers ample opportunity for the expression of individuality. Moreover, these owls often give themselves over to tremulous whispering and they emphasize excitement by snapping their beaks in an alarming manner.

Any bird that is flying about and singing in the night time must be able to see where it is going, and the owls have spe- cial adaptations for this. The eyes are

Page 101 (PDF 127)

Birds 101

very large and the yellow iris opens and closes about the pupil in a way quite similar to the arrangement in the cat's eye, except that the pupil in the owl's eye is round when contracted instead of elongated; in the night this pupil is expanded until it covers most of the eye. The owl does not need to see behind and at the sides, since it does not belong to the birds which are the victims of other birds and animals of prey. The owl is a bird that hunts instead of being hunted, and it needs only to focus its eyes on the creature it is chasing. Thus, its eyes are in the front of the head like our own; but it can see behind, in case of need, for the head turns upon the neck as if it were fitted on a ballbearing joint. I have often amused my- self by walking around a captive screech owl, which would follow me with its eyes by turning the head until it almost made the circle; then the head would twist back with such lightning rapidity that I could hardly detect the movement. It seemed almost as if the head were on a pivot and could be moved around and around indefinitely. Although the owl, like the cat, has eyes fitted for night hunting, it can also see fairly well during the daytime.

A beak with the upper mandible ending in a sharp hook signifies that its owner lives upon other animals and needs to rend and tear flesh. The owl's beak thus formed is somewhat buried in the feathers of the face, which gives it a striking resem- blance to a Roman nose. This, with the great, staring, round eyes, bestows upon the owl an appearance of great wisdom. But it is not the beak which the owl uses for a weapon of attack; its strong feet and sharp, curved claws are its weapons for striking the enemy and also for grappling with its prey. The outer toe can be moved back at will, so that in grasping its prey or its perch, two toes may be directed for- ward and two backward, thus giving a stronger hold.

The ear is very different in form from the ear of other birds; instead of being a mere hole opening into the internal ear, it consists of a fold of skin forming a chan- nel which extends from above the eye S. A. Grimes A barn or monkey -faced owl around to the side of the throat. Thus equipped, while hunting in the dark the owl is able to hear any least rustle of mouse or bird and to know in which direction to descend upon it. There has been no relation established between the ear tufts of the screech owl and its ears, so far as I know, but the way the bird lifts the tufts when it is alert always suggests that this movement in some way opens up the ear. In color there are two phases among the screech owls, one reddish brown, the other gray. The back is streaked with black, the breast is marked with many shaft-lines of black. The whole effect of the owl's plumage makes it resemble a branch of a tree or a part of the bark, and thus it is protected from prying eyes during the day- time when it is sleeping. Its plumage is very fluffy and its wing feathers, instead of being stiff to the very edge, have soft fringes which cushion the stroke upon the air. The owl's flight is, therefore, noiseless; and the bird is thus able to swoop down upon its prey without giving warning of its approach. The screech owls are partial to old ap- ple orchards for nesting sites. They will often use the abandoned nest of a woodpecker; the eggs are almost as round as marbles and as white as chalk; it is well that they are laid within a dark hole, for otherwise their color would attract the

Page 102 (PDF 128)

1O2 Animals

S. A. Grimes The great horned owl eyes of enemies. There are usually four eggs; the fubsy little owlets climb out of their home cave by the end of May and are the funniest little creatures imagina- ble. They make interesting but decidedly snappy pets; they can be fed on insects and raw beef. It is most interesting to see one wake up late in the afternoon after its daytime sleep. All day it has sat motion- less upon its perch with its toes completely covered with its fluffy feather skirt. Suddenly its eyes open, the round pupils en- larging or contracting with great rapidity as if adjusting themselves to the amount of light. When the owl winks it is like a moon in eclipse, so large are the eyes, and so entirely are they obscured by the lids, which seem like circular curtains. When it yawns, its wide bill absurdly resembles a human mouth, and the yawn is very hu- man in its expression. It then stretches its wings; it is astonishing how far this wing can be extended below the feet. It then begins its toilet. It dresses its feathers with its short beak, nibbling industriously in the fluff; it scratches its under parts and breast with its bill, then cleans the bill with its foot, meanwhile moving the head up and down as if in an attempt to see its surroundings better. The owls are loyal lovers and are said to remain mated through life, the twain being very devoted to their nests and nestlings. Sometimes the two wise-looking lit- tle parents sit together on the eggs, a most happy way to pass the wearisome incuba- tion period. The screech owls winter in the north and are distinctly foresighted in preparing for winter. They have often been observed catching mice, during the late fall, and placing them in some hollow tree for cold storage, whence they may be taken in time of need. Their food consists to some extent of insects, especially nightflying moths and beetles, and also cater- pillars and grasshoppers. However, the larger part of their food is mice; some- times small birds are caught, and the Eng- lish sparrow is a frequent victim. Chickens are rarely taken, except when small, since this owlet is not as long as a robin. It swallows its quarry as whole as possible, trust- ing to its inner organs to do the sifting and selecting. Later it throws up pellets of the indigestible bones, hair, etc. By the study of these pellets, found under owl roosts, the scientists have been able to determine the natural food of the bird, and they all unite in assuring us that the screech owl does the farmer much more good than harm, since it feeds so largely upon crea- tures which destroy his crops. SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 11; Bird Stories, by Edith M. Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Birds in the Wilderness, by George M. Sutton; Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Our Backdoor Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett; The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 26

The Screech Owl

LEADING THOUGHT — This owl is espe- cially adapted to get its prey at night. It feeds largely on field mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and other injurious insects and is therefore the friend of the farmer.

METHOD — This lesson should begin when the children first hear the cry of this owl; and an owl in captivity is a fascinat- ing object for the children to observe. However, it is so important that the chil- dren learn the habits of this owl that the teacher is advised to hinge the lesson on

Page 103 (PDF 129)

Birds 103

any observation whatever made by the pu- laid? What is their color? At what time of - - - year do the little owls appear? 9. Where does the screech owl spend the winter? What do the screech owls feed upon? Do they chew their food? How do pils, and illustrate it with pictures and stories.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Have you ever heard the screech owl? At what time of

the day or night? Why was this? Why they get rid of the indigestible portion of does the owl screech? How did you feel their food? How does this habit help sci- when listening to the owl's song? entists to know the food of the owls? 2. Describe the owl's eyes. Are they 10. How does the screech owl work in- adapted to see by night? What changes take place in them to enable the owl to see by day also? In what way are the owl's eyes similar to the cat's? Why is it necessary for an owl to see at night? Are the owl's eyes placed so that they can see at the sides like other birds? How does it see an object at the sides or be- hind it?

3. Note the owl's beak. For what pur- pose is a hooked beak? How does the owl use its beak? Why do we think that the owl looks wise?

4. Describe the feet and claws of the screech owl. What are such sharp hooked claws meant for? Does an owl on a perch always have three toes directed forward and one backward?

5. Describe the colors of the screech owl. Are all these owls of the same color?

How do these colors protect the bird from its enemies?

6. How is the owl's plumage adapted to silent flight? Why is silent flight advan- tageous to this bird?

7. How does the owl's ear differ from the ears of other birds? Of what special ad- vantage is this? As the owl hunts during the night, what does it do in the daytime?

How and by what means does it hide it- self?

8. Where does the screech owl make its nest? Do you know anything about the devotion of the parent owls to each other and to their young? How many eggs are jury to the farmers? How does it benefit them? Does not the benefit outweigh the injury?

11. How many other kinds of owls do you know? What do you know of their habits?

Two Wise Owls

We are two dusJky owls, and we live in a tree; Loolc at her, — look at me!

Look at her, — she's my mate, and the mother of three Pretty owlets, and we Have a warm cosy nest, just as snug as can be.

We are both very wise; for our heads, as you see, (Look at her — look at me/) Are as large as the heads of four birds ought to be; And our horns, you'll agree. Make us loofc wiser still, sitting here on the tree.

And we care not how gloomy the night- time may be; We can see, — we can see; Through the forest to roam, it suits her, it suits me; And we're free, — we are free To bring back what we find, to our nest in the tree. — ANONYMOUS

Page 104 (PDF 130)

S. A. Grimes The fish hawk or osprey. This hawk builds its large nest from twenty to fifty feet above the ground. It subsists almost entirely on fish

The Hawks

Above the tumult of the canon lifted, the gray hawk breathless hung, Or on the hill a winged shadow drifted where furze and thornbush clung. — BRET HARTE It is the teacher's duty and privilege to try to revolutionize some popular miscon- ceptions about birds, and two birds, in great need in this respect, are the so-called hen hawks. They are most unjustly treated, largely because most farmers consider that a " hawk is a hawk/' and should always be shot to save the poultry, al- though there is as much difference in the habits of hawks as there is in those of men.

The so-called hen hawks are the red-shouldered and the red-tailed species, the latter being somewhat the larger and rarer of the two. Both are very large birds. The red-shouldered has cinnamon brown epaulets; the tail is blackish, crossed by five or six narrow white bars, and the wing feathers are also barred. The red-tailed species has dark brown wings; the feathers are not barred, and it is distinguished by its tail which is brilliant cinnamon color with a black bar across it near the end; it is silvery white beneath. When the hawk is soaring, its tail shows reddish as it wheels in the air. Both birds are brown above and whitish below, streaked with brown.

The flight of these hawks is similar and is very beautiful; it consists of soaring on outstretched wings in wide circles high in the air, and is the ideal of graceful aerial motion. In rising, the bird faces the wind and drops a little in the circle as its back turns to the leeward, and thus it climbs an invisible winding stair until it is a mere speck in the sky. When the bird wishes to drop, it lifts and holds its wings above its

Page 105 (PDF 131)

back, and comes down like a lump of lead, only to catch itself whenever it chooses to begin again to climb the invisible spiral. And all this is done without fatigue, for these birds have been observed to soar thus for hours together without coming to earth. When thus soaring the two spe- cies may be distinguished from each other by their cries; the red-tailed gives a high sputtering scream, which Chapman likens to the sound of escaping steam; while the red-shouldered calls in a high not unmusical note " kee-you, kee-you " or " tee-ur, tee-ur." The popular fallacy for the teacher to correct about these birds is that they are enemies of the farmers. Not until a hawk has actually been seen to catch chickens should it be shot, for very few of them are guilty of this sin. Sixty-six per cent of the food of the red-tailed species consists of injurious animals, i.e., mice and gophers, etc., and only seven per cent consists of poultry; the victims are probably old or disabled fowls, and fall an easy prey; this bird much prefers mice and reptiles to poultry. The more common red-shoulS. A. Grimes The marsh hawk. This is a bird of the open fields. It flies low in search of rodents, rep- tiles, frogs, and insects. It may be identified by a white spot on the rump A. A. Allen Red-tailed hawk dered hawk feeds generally on mice, snakes, frogs, fish, and is very fond of grasshoppers. Ninety per cent of its food con- sists of creatures which injure our crops or pastures and scarcely one and one-half per cent is made up of poultry and game.

These facts have been ascertained by the experts in the Department of Agriculture at Washington who have examined the stomachs of hundreds of these hawks taken from different localities. Furthermore, Dr. Fisher states that a pair of the red-shouldered hawks bred for successive years within a few hundred yards of a poul- try farm containing 800 young chickens and 400 ducks, and the owner never saw them attempt to catch a fowl.

However, there are certain species of hawks which are to be feared; these are the Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk, the first being very destructive to poultry and the latter killing many wild birds. These are both somewhat smaller than the species we are studying. They are both dark gray above and have very long tails, and when flying they flap their wings for a time and then glide a distance.

They do not soar on motionless outspread pinions by the hour. When hawks are seen soaring, they are likely to be hunting for mice in the meadows below them. Their eyes are remarka- bly keen; they can see a moving creature from a great height, and can suddenly drop upon it like a thunderbolt out of a clear sky. Their wonderful eyes are far- sighted when they are circling in the sky,

Page 106 (PDF 132)

Birds Of Prey And Scavengers

1. SPARROW HAWKS. In summer these birds will be found from northern Canada south to the Gulf states except in peninsular Florida and the arid regions of the South- west; in winter from the northern United States to Panama. About eleven inches in length, this pretty little hawk has readily adapted itself to civilization and in densely populated areas makes its nest about buildings and even in birdhouses. The sparrow hawk should be protected everywhere, for it is useful to man; it feeds

chiefly on mice and insects. (Photo by Doro- thy M. Compton)

2. SNOWY OWL. One of the largest and most handsome of owls, the snowy owl, is at home in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere; it breeds as far north as land is found and as far south as northern Quebec, Manitoba, and British Columbia. In winter it migrates southward in search of food if mice and lemmings become scarce in the North. In North America the winter range may extend as far south as the Gulf states, in Europe as far south as France and Switzerland, and in Asia to northern India and Japan.

This owl is seldom seen in trees, preferring the open country, probably because the rodents which are its principal food are found there.

(Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)

3. A YOUNG SCREECH OWL. The range of these birds extends from southern Canada to the southern United States. They breed over most of this area. The screech owl is not quite so long as a robin. It often nests in a small cavity in a tree or even in a birdhouse. It is not unusual for the owl to use the same nesting place year after year. It feeds largely on mice, other small mammals, insects, and small birds.

This owl is unique in that it has two color phases; both male and female may be either gray

or reddish brown. (Photo by Dorothy M. Comp* ton)

4. HERRING GULL. These birds are scavengers found along the coasts and inland waters of the Northern Hemisphere. They nest in colonies, usually on islands but always near the water. The nest of seaweed, grasses, or moss is generally built on the ground. Flocks of herring gulls are often seen near piers and wharves where they perform a valuable service by feeding on garbage and refuse. It is generally this bird that follows coastwise boats waiting

for refuse to be thrown overboard. (Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)

5. AN ADULT SCREECH OWL. Perched in a tree, the screech owl is difficult to detect, for he is easily mistaken for branches and leaves.

(Photo by A. A. Allen)

6. A BLACK VULTURE AT THE ENTRANCE TO ITS NEST. This is a scavenger of the South.

Though it rarely breeds north of Maryland, it is occasionally seen in some of the central states. The value of these birds in removing health-menacing garbage and carrion is so great that they are protected by law and public sentiment. They are quite numerous in the South and are often seen in towns and cities.

The black vulture does not build a nest; the eggs are laid in cavities in trees or rocks, in hollow stumps, or on the ground beneath bushes.

(Photo by S.A. Grimes') 7. AUDUBON'S CAR AC ABA. This bird's usual

range is from Lower California, Arizona, Texas, and southern Florida southward to Ecuador; it has been reported as an accidental visitor as far north as Ontario. The nest is a bulky structure of sticks, branches, roots, grass, and leaveSj usually placed in trees or on bushes or ledges.

Caracaras are often seen in the company of vultures, feeding on carrion, and they also capture and eat snakes, frogs, and lizards. The caracara's flight is direct and rapid, not at all like that of the vulture, which sails and soars in

spirals. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)

Page 107 (PDF 133)

[Blank or Illustrated Page Scan]

Page 108 (PDF 134)

io8 ANIMALS Leonard K. Beyer Nest and eggs of the marsh hawk but as they drop, the focus of the eyes changes automatically with great rapid- ity, so that by the time they reach the earth they are nearsighted, a feat quite impossible for our eyes unless aided by glasses or telescope. These so-called hen hawks will often sit motionless, for hours at a time, on some dead branch or dead tree; they are proba- bly watching for something eatable to stir within the range of their keen vision.

When seizing its prey, a hawk uses its strong feet and sharp, curved talons. All hawks have sharp and polished claws, even as the warrior has a keen, bright sword; the legs are covered by a growth of feathers extending down from above, looking like feather trousers. The beak is hooked and very sharp and is used for tearing apart the flesh of the quarry. When a hawk fights some larger animal or man, it throws itself over upon its back and strikes its assailant with its strong claws as well as with its beak; but the talons are its chief weapons.

Both species build a large, shallow nest of coarse sticks and grass, lined with moss, feathers, etc.; it is a rude, rough structure, and is placed in tall trees from fifty to sfeventy-five feet from the ground. Only two to four eggs are laid; these are whitish, spotted with brown. These hawks are said to remain mated for life and are devoted to each other and to their young. Hawks and eagles are very similar in form and habits, and if the eagle is a noble bird, so is the hawk.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflets 8, 9, 10, 37, 82, 122; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; Food Habits of Common Hawlcs, by W. L. McAtee (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 370); The Hawlcs of North America, by John B. May; Our Backdoor Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 27

The Hawks

LEADING THOUGHT — Uninformed people consider all hawks dangerous neigh- bors because they are supposed to feed exclusively on poultry. This idea is false and we should study carefully the habits of hawks before we shoot them. The ordinary large reddish " hen hawks," which circle high above meadows, are doing great good to the farmer by feeding upon the mice and other creatures which steal his grain and girdle his trees.

METHOD — Begin by observations on the flight of one of these hawks and sup- plement this with such observations as the pupils are able to make, or facts which they can discover by talking with hunters or others, and by reading.

OBSERVATIONS — i. How can you tell a

Leonard K. Beyer Young marsh hawks

Page 109 (PDF 135)

hawk, when flying, from a crow or other large bird? Describe how it soars. Does it move off in any direction? If so, does it move off in circles? How often does it make strokes with its wings? Does it rise when it is facing the wind and fall as it turns its back to the wind?

2. Have you seen a hawk flap its wings many times and then soar for a time? If so, what hawk do you think it was? How does it differ in habits from the "hen hawks "? 3. Have you noticed a hawk when soaring drop suddenly to earth? If so, why did it do this?

4. How does a hawk hunt? How, when it is so high in the air that it looks like a circling speck in the sky, can it see a mouse in a meadow? If it is so farsighted as this, how can it be nearsighted enough to catch the mouse when it is close to it?

Would you not have to use field glasses or telescope to do this?

5. When a hawk alights what sort of place does it choose? How does it act?

6. Do hawks seize their prey with their claws or their beaks? What sort of feet and claws has the hawk? Describe the beak. What do you think a beak of this shape is meant for?

7. Why do people shoot hawks? Why is it a mistake for people to wish to shoot all hawks?

8. What is the food of the red-shouldered hawk as shown by the bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture or by the Audubon leaflets?

9. Where does the hawk place its nest? Of what does it build its nest?

10. Compare the food and the nesting habits of the red-shouldered and red- tailed hawks?

1 1 . How devoted are the hawks to their mates and to their young? Does a hawk, having lost its mate, live alone ever after? 12. Describe the colors of the hen hawks and describe how you can tell the two species apart by the colors and mark- ings of the tail.

13. What is the cry of the hawk? How can you tell the two species apart by this cry? Does the hawk give its cry only when on the wing?

14. Why should an eagle be considered so noble a bird and the hawk be so scorned? What difference is there be- tween them in habits?

Yet, ere the noon, as brass the heaven turns, The cruel sun smites with unerring aim, The sight and touch of all things blinds and burns, And bare, hot hills seem shimmering into flame!

On outspread wings a hawk, far poised on high, Quick swooping screams, and then is heard no more: The strident shrilling of a locust nigh Breaks forth, and dies in silence as be- fore.

— " Summer Drought," J. P. Irvine

The Swallows And The Chimney Swift

These friendly little birds spend their time darting through the air on swift wings, seeking and destroying insects which are foes to us and to our various crops. However, it is safe to assume that they are not thinking of us as they skim above our meadows and ponds, hawking our tiny foes; for like most of us, they are simply intent upon getting a living.

Would that we might perform this nec- essary duty as gracefully as they!

In general, the swallows have a long, slender, graceful body, with a long tail which is forked or notched, except in the case of the eave swallow. The beak is short but wide where it joins the head; this en- ables the bird to open its mouth wide and gives it more scope in the matter of catch- ing insects; the swift flight of the swallows enables them to catch insects on the wing.

Their legs are short, the feet are weak and fitted for perching; it would be quite im-

Page 110 (PDF 136)

no ANIMALS L. A. Fuertes Swallows and swifts possible for a swallow to walk or hop like a robin or blackbird.

THE EAVE OR CLIFF SWALLOWS — These swallows build under the eaves of barns or in similar locations. In early times they built against the sides of cliffs; but when man came and built barns, they chose them for their dwelling sites. The nest is made of mud pellets and is some- what globular in shape, with an entrance at one side. When the nest is on the side of a cliff or in an unprotected portion of a barn, a covered passage is built around the door, which gives the nest the shape of a gourd or retort; but when protected beneath the eaves the birds seem to think this vestibule is unnecessary. The mud nest is warmly lined with feathers and soft materials, and often there are many nests built so closely together that they touch.

The eave swallow comes north about May i, and soon after that may be seen along streams or other damp places gathering mud for the nests. It seems necessary for the bird to find clay mud in order to ren- der the nest strong enough to support the eggs and nestlings. The eggs are white, blotched with reddish brown. The parents cling to the edge of the nest when feeding A. A. Allen Nests of cliff swallows Leonard K. Beyer Barn swallow and nest the young. Both the barn and eave swal- lows are blue above, but the eave swallow has the forehead cream white and the rump of pale brick-red, and its tail is square across the end as seen in flight. The bam swallow has a chestnut forehead and its outer tail feathers are long, making a distinct fork during flight, and it is not red upon the rump.

THE BARN SWALLOWS — These birds choose a bam where there is a hole in the gable or where the doors are kept open all the time. They build upon beams or rafters, making a cup-shaped nest of layers of pellets of mud, with grass between; it is well lined with feathers. The nest is usually the shape of half of a shallow cup which has been cut in two lengthwise, the

Page 111 (PDF 137)

cut side being plastered against the side of the rafter. Sometimes the nests are more or less supported upon a beam or rafter; the eggs are white and dotted with reddish brown. The barn swallows, aside from their constant twittering, have also a pretty song. Both parents work at building the nest and feeding the young; there are likely to be several pairs nesting in the same building. The parents continue to feed the young long after they have left the nest; often a whole family may be seen sitting on a telegraph wire or wire fence, the parents still feeding the well-grown youngsters. This species comes north in This barn swallow's nest is well feathered the latter part of April and leaves early in September. It winters as far south as Brazil.

The barn swallow has a distinctly tailormade appearance; its red-brown vest and iridescent blue coat, with deeply forked " coat tails " give it an elegance of style which no other bird, not even the chic cedar waxwing, can emulate. THE BANK SWALLOW — When we see a sandy bank apparently shot full of holes as by small cannon balls, we may know that we have found a tenement of bank swallows. These birds always choose the per- pendicular banks of creeks or of railroad cuts or of sand pits for their nesting sites; they require a soil sufficiently soft to be tunneled by their weak feet, and yet not so loose as to cave in upon the nest. The tunnel may extend from one to four feet Leonard K. Beyer The band of color across the breast is the dis- tinguishing mark of the bank swallow horizontally in the bank with just enough diameter to admit the body of the rather small bird. The nest is situated at the extreme end of the tunnel and is lined with soft feathers and grasses.

The bank swallows arrive late in April and leave early in September. They may be distinguished from the other species by their grayish color above; the throat and breast are white with a broad, brownish band across the breast; .-the tail is slightly forked. The rough-winged swallow, which is similar in habits to the bank swallow, may be distinguished from it by its gray breast which has no dark band.

THE TREE SWALLOW — This graceful little bird builds naturally in holes in trees, but readily accepts a box if it is provided.

It begins to build soon after it comes north in late April, and it is well for us to encourage the tree swallows to live near Leonard K. Beyer Nesting site of a colony of bank swallows

Page 112 (PDF 138)

112 Animals

George Fiske, Jr.

A tree swallow our houses by building houses for them and driving away the English sparrows.

The tree swallows live upon many insects which annoy us and injure our gardens and damage our orchards; they are, there- fore, much more desirable neighbors than the English sparrows. The tree swallows congregate in great numbers for the south- ern migration very early in the season.

often in early August. They are likely to congregate in marshes, as are also the other swallows. In color the tree swallow has a green metallic back and head, and a pure white breast with no band across it; these peculiarities distinguish it from all other species.

THE PURPLE MARTIN — The martin is a larger bird than any other swallow, being eight inches in length, while the barn swallow does not measure quite seven.

The male is shining, steel-blue above and below; the female is brownish above, has a gray throat, brownish breast and is white beneath. The martins originally nested in hollow trees but for centuries have been cared for by man. The Indians were wont to put out empty gourds for them to nest in; and as soon as America was settled by Europeans, martin boxes were built exA. A. Allen Nest of chimney swifts Leonard K. Beyer Two bank swallows at the entrances to their burrows tensively. But when the English sparrows came, they took possession of the boxes, and the martins have to a large extent disappeared; this is a pity since they are bene- ficial birds, feeding upon insects which are injurious to our farms and gardens.

They are also delightful birds to have around, and we may possibly induce them to come back to us by building houses for them and driving away the sparrows.

The Chimney Swift

When the old-fashioned fireplaces went out of use and were walled up, leaving the great old chimneys useless, these sociable birds took possession of them.

Page 113 (PDF 139)

Here they built their nests and reared their young, and twittered and scrambled about, awakened all sleepers in the neighbor- hood at earliest dawn, and in many ways made themselves a distinct part of family life. With the disappearance of these old chimneys and the growing use of the smaller chimney, the swifts have been more or less driven from their close association with people; and now their nests are often found in hay barns or other secluded buildings, although they still gather in chimneys when opportunity offers.

The chimney swifts originally built nests in hollow trees and caves; but with the coming of civilization they took pos- session of the chimneys disused during the summer, and here is where we know them best. The nests are shaped like little wall pockets; they are made of small sticks of nearly uniform size which are glued to- gether and glued fast to the chimney wall by means of the saliva secreted in the mouth of the bird. After the nesting sea- son, the swifts often gather in great flocks and live together in some large chimney; toward nightfall they may be seen cir- cling about in great numbers and drop- ping into the mouth of the chimney, one by one, as if they were being poured into a funnel. In the morning they leave in reverse manner, each swift flying about in widening circles as it leaves the chim- ney. The swifts are never seen to alight anywhere except in hollow trees or chim- neys or similar places; their tiny feet have sharp claws for clinging to the slightest roughness of the upright wall; the tail acts as a prop, each tail feather ending in a spine which is pressed against the chim- ney side when the bird alights, thus enabling it to cling more firmly. In this fashion the swifts roost, practically hung up against a wall. The swift has a short beak and wide mouth which it opens broadly to engulf insects as it darts through the air. Chim- ney swifts have been known to travel at the rate of no miles an hour.

This bird should never be confused with the swallows, for when flying, its tail seems simply a sharp point, making the whole body cigar-shaped. This character- istic alone distinguishes it from the long- tailed swallows. In color it is sooty brown, with a gray throat and breast; the wings are long and narrow and apparently curved. The manner of flight and appear- ance in the air make it resemble the bat more than it does the swallow.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflets 13, 32, 33, and 49; Bird Stories, by Edith M. Patch (Cliff Swallow); Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Bur- roughs (Chimney Swift) ; First Lessons in Nature Study, by Edith M. Patch (Cliff Swallow, Bank Swallow); Holiday Pond, by Edith M. Patch (Bank Swallow); Na- ture and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting (Bank Swallow), Book 2, Out- door Visits (Bank Swallow, Tree Swal- low), Book 3, Surprises (Tree Swallow), Book 5, Science at Home (Cliff Swallow) ; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 28

The Swallows And Swifts

LEADING THOUGHT — The swallows are very graceful birds and are exceedingly swift fliers. They feed upon insects which they catch upon the wing. There are five native swallows which are common — the eave, or cliff, the barn, the bank, the tree swallow, and the purple martin. The chimney swift, although often called so, is not a swallow; it is more nearly related to the hummingbird than to the swallows.

METHOD — The questions should be given as an outline for observation, and may be written on the blackboard or placed in the field notebook. The pupils should answer them individually and from field observation. We s.:udy the swifts and swallows together to teach the pupils to distinguish them apart.

OBSERVATIONS — i. What is the gen- eral shape of the swallow? What is the color of the forehead, throat, upper breast,

neck, rump, and tail?

2. Is the tail noticeably forked, espe- cially during flight?

Page 114 (PDF 140)

Leonard K. Beyer1 Nest of bank swallows. The bank has been cut away so that the nest and eggs could be photographed 3. Describe the flight of the swallow.

What are the purposes of its long, swift flight? How are the swallow's wings fitted for carrying the bird swiftly?

4. Describe the form of the beak of the swallow. How does it get its food? What is its food?

5. In what particular locations do you see the swallows darting about?

At what time of day do they seem most active?

6. Describe the swallow's legs and feet and explain why they look so different from those of the robin and blackbird.

The Eave Or Cliff Swallow

7. Where do the eave swallows build their nests? Of what material is the outside? The lining? Describe the shape of the nest and how it is supported.

8. How early in the spring do the eave swallows begin to make their nests?

Where and by what means do they get the material for nest building? Are there a number of nests usually grouped together?

9. Describe the eave swallow's egg. Where do the parents sit when feeding the young? What is the note of the eave swallow?

10. What are the differences between the barn and the eave swallow in color and shape of tail?

The Barn Swallow

11. Where does the barn swallow place its nest? What is the shape of the nest? Of what material is it made?

12. What is the color of the eggs? Describe the feeding of the young and the sounds made by them and their parents.

Do both parents work together to build the nest and feed the young?

13. Is there usually more than one nest in the same locality? When the young swallows are large enough to leave the nest, describe how the parents continue to care for them.

14. Have you ever heard the barn swal- lows sing? Describe their conversational notes.

15. When do the barn swallows migrate and where do they go during the winter? How can you distinguish the barn swallow from the eave swallow?

The Bank Swallow

16. Where do the bank swallows build?

What sort of soil do they choose?

17. How does a bank which is tenanted by these birds look? 18. How far do the bank swallows tunnel into the earth? What is the diameter of one of these tunnels? Do they extend straight or do they rise or deflect?

A. A. Allen Nest and eggs of tree swallows

Page 115 (PDF 141)

19. With what tools is the tunnel exca- vated? Where is the nest situated in the tunnel and how is it lined?

25. Where did the martins build their nests before America was civilized?

Where do thev like to nest now? How do 20. How can you distinguish this spe- the purple martins benefit us and how cies from the barn and eave and tree swallows? At what time do the bank swallows leave us for migration south?

The Tree Swallow

21. Where does the tree swallow make its nest? How does its nest differ from that of the barn? eave, or bank swallow?

When does it begin to build?

22. How can we encourage the tree swallow to build near our houses? Why is the tree swallow a much more desirable bird to have in birdhouses than the Eng- lish sparrow?

23. Describe the peculiar migrating habits of the tree swallow. How can you tell this species from the barn, the eave, and the bank swallows?

The Purple Martin

24. Compare the purple martin with the swallows and describe how it differs in size and color.

can wre induce them to come to us?

The Chimney Swift

26. Where do the chimney swifts build their nests? Of what materials is the nest made? What is its shape and how is it supported? Where does the chimney building? swift get the glue which it uses for nest 27. Describe how the chimney swifts enter their nesting place at night. Where and how do they perch? Describe the shape of the swift's tail and its use to the bird when roosting.

28. On what does the chimney swift feed and how does it procure this food? Describe how its beak is especially fitted for this.

29. How can you distinguish the chim- ney swift from the swallows? In what re- spect does the chimney swift resemble the swallows? In what respects does it differ from them?

The Hummingbird

Formerly it was believed that this dain- tiest of birds found the nectar of flowers ample support for its active life; but the later methods of discovering what birds eat by examining the contents of their stomachs, show that the hummingbird is an insect eater of most ravenous appetite.

Not only does it catch insects in mid air, but undoubtedly takes them while they are feasting on the nectar of the tubular flowers which the hummingbird loves to visit. Incidentally, the humming- bird carries some pollen for these flowers and may be counted as a friend in every respect, since usually the insects in the nectaries of those flowers with long tubu- lar corollas are stealing nectar without giving in return any compensation to the flower by carrying its pollen. Such insects may be the smaller beetles, ants, and flies.

The adaptations of the hummingbird's beak and long, double-tubed tongue, are especially for securing this mingled diet of insects and nectar. It is interesting to note that the young hummingbirds have the beak much shorter than the mature birds. The hummingbird's beak is exactly fitted to probe those flowers where the bird finds its food. The tongue has the outer edges curved over, making a tube on each side. These tubes are provided with minute brushes at the tips and thus are fitted both for sucking nectar and for sweeping up the insects. The natural home of the hummingbird seems to have been in the American trop- ics. The male of our one species east of the Rocky Mountains has a ruby throat. This bird comes to us after a very long journey each year. One species on the Pa-

Page 116 (PDF 142)

n6 ANIMALS The nest of the hummingbird is a most exquisite structure; it is about three- fourths of an inch in diameter on the in- side and about half an inch deep. It is, in shape, a symmetrical cup; the outside is covered with lichens, so that it exactly resembles the branch on which it rests; the inside is lined with the down of plant seeds and plant fibers. The lichens are often fastened to the outside with the A. A. Allen Ruby -throated hummingbird turning her eggs cific Coast is known to travel three thou- sand miles to the north for the summer and back again in winter. Hummingbirds are not supposed to sing, but to use their voices for squeak- ing when angry or frightened. However, I once had the privilege of listening to a true song by a hummingbird on the Pacific Coast. The midget was perched upon a twig and lifted up his voice with every appearance of ecstasy in pouring forth his lay. To my uncultured ear this song was a fine, shrill, erratic succession of squeaks, " as fine as a cambric needle/' said my companion.

© General Biological Supply House, Chicago Two young hummingbirds. They remain in nest for about three weeks © General Biological Supply House, Chicago Not much larger than a walnut, the hummingbird's nest looks like a knot on a branch silk web of spiders or caterpillars. The nest is usually saddled on a branch of a tree from ten to fifty feet above the ground.

The eggs are two in number and white; they look like tiny beans. The young are black and look, at first glance, more like insects than like birds.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 56; Mother Nature Series, by Fannie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book i, Hunting, Book 5, Science at Home; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 29

The Hummingbird

LEADING THOUGHT — The humming- bird in flight moves its wings so rapidly that we cannot see them. It can hold itself poised above flowers while it thrusts its long beak into them for nectar and in- sects.

METHOD — Give the questions to the

Page 117 (PDF 143)

pupils and let them make the observations when they have the opportunity. OBSERVATIONS— i. Where did you find the hummingbird? What flowers was it visiting? At what time of day? Can you tell whether it is a hummingbird or a hawkmoth which is visiting the flowers? At what time of day do the hawkmoths appear? 2. Did you ever see the hummingbird come to rest? Describe its actions while resting.

3. What are the colors of the back, throat, breast, and under parts? How do you distinguish the mother hummingbird from her mate?

4. How does the hummingbird act when extracting the nectar? How does it balance itself in front of a flower? Have you ever seen hummingbirds catch insects in the air? If so, describe how they did it.

5. Describe the hummingbird's nest. How large is it in diameter? What is the covering outside? With what is it lined?

The Red-Winged Blackbird

The blackbirds are among our earliest visitors in the spring; they come in flocks and beset our leafless trees like punctuation marks, meanwhile squeaking like mu- sical wheelbarrows. What they are, where they come from, where they are going and what they are going to do, are the questions that naturally arise at the sight of these sable flocks. It is not easy to distinguish grackles, cowbirds, and rusty blackbirds at a glance, but the redwing pro- claims his identity from afar. The bright red epaulets, margined behind with pale yellow, make up a uniform which catches the admiring eye. The bird's glossy black plumage brings into greater contrast his bright decorations. No one who has seen his actions can doubt that he is fully aware of his beauty: he comes sailing down at the end of his strong, swift flight, and balances himself on some bending reed; then, dropping his long tail as if it were the crank of his music box, and holding both wings lifted to show his scarlet decorations, he sings his " quong-quer- ee-ee." Little wonder that such a handsome, military-looking fellow should be able now and then to win more than his share of feminine admiration. But even though he become an entirely suc- cessful bigamist or even trigamist, he has proved himself to be a good protector of each and all of his wives and nestlings; however, he often has but one mate.

" The redwing flutes his O-ka-lee " is Emerson's graphic description of the sweet song of the redwing; he also has many other notes. He clucks to his mates and clucks more sharply when suspicious, and has one alarm note that is truly alarmL Male and female red-winged blackbirds ing. The male redwings come from the South in March; they appear in flocks7 often three weeks before their mates arrive. The female looks as though she belonged to quite a different species. Al-

Page 118 (PDF 144)

n8 ANIMALS Nest and eggs of the red-winged blackbird though her head and back are black, the black is decidedly rusty; it is quite impossible to describe her, she is so incon- spicuously speckled with brown, black, whitish buff, and orange. Most of us never recognize her unless we see her with her spouse. She probably does most of the nest building, and her suit of salt, pepper, and mustard renders her invisible to the keen eyes of birds of prey. Only when she is flying does she show her blackbird characteristics — her tail being long and of ob- vious use as a steering organ; and she walks with long, stiff strides. The redwings are ever to be found in and about swamps and marshes. The nest is usually built in May; it is made of grasses and stalks of weeds and is lined with finer grass or reeds. It is bulky and is placed in low bushes or among the reeds. The eggs are pale blue, streaked and spotted with purple or black. The young resemble the mother in color, the males being obliged to wait a year for their epaulets. As to the food of the redwings here in the North, Mr. Forbush has said: " Although the red-wings almost invari- ably breed in the swamp or marsh, they have a partiality for open fields and plowed lands; however, most of the black- birds that nest in the smaller swamps adjacent to farm lands get a large share of their food from the farmer's fields. They forage about the fields and meadows when they first come north in the spring. Later, they follow the plow, picking up grubs, worms and caterpillars; and should there be an outbreak of canker-worms in the orchard, the blackbirds will fly at least half a mile to get canker-worms for their young.

Wilson estimated that the red-wings of the United States would in four months destroy sixteen thousand two hundred A. A. Allen The mother arrives with food for her young million larvas. They eat the caterpillars of the gypsy moth, the forest tent-caterpillar, and other hairy larvae. They are among the most destructive birds to weevils, click beetles, and wire-worms. Grasshoppers, ants, bugs, and flies form a portion of the red-wing's food. They eat comparatively little grain in Massachusetts although they get some from newly sown fields in spring, as well as from the autumn harvest; but they feed very largely on the seeds of weeds and wild rice in the fall. In the

Page 119 (PDF 145)

South they join with the bobolink in devastating the rice fields, and in the West they are often so numerous as to destroy the grain in the fields; but here [in the North and East] the good they do far outweighs the injury, and for this reason they are protected by law." SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 25; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 30

The Red-Winged Blackbird

LEADING THOUGHT — The red-winged blackbird lives in the marshes where it builds its nest. However, it comes over to our plowed lands and pastures and helps the farmer by destroying many in- sects which injure the meadows, crops, and trees.

METHOD — The observations should be made by the pupils individually in the field. These birds may be looked for in flocks early in the spring, but the study should be made in May or June when they will be found in numbers in almost any swamp. The questions may be given to the pupils a few at a time or written in their field notebooks and the answers discussed when discovered.

OBSERVATIONS — i . How can you distinguish the red-winged blackbird from all other blackbirds? Where is the red

on his wings? Is there any other color be- sides black on the wings? Where? What is the color of the rest of the plumage of this bird?

2. What is there peculiar in the flight of the redwing? Is its tail long or short?

How does it use its tail in flight? What is its position when the bird alights on a reed?

3. What is the song of the redwing? Describe the way he holds his wings and tail when singing, balanced on a reed or some other swamp grass. Does he show off his epaulets when singing? What note does he give when he is surprised or sus- picious? When frightened?

4. When does the redwing first appear in the spring? Does he come alone or in flocks? Does his mate come with him?

Where do the redwings winter? In what localities do the red-winged blackbirds live? Why do they live there? What is the color of the mother redwing? Would you know by her looks that she was a black- bird? What advantage is it to the pair that the female is so dull in color?

5. At what time do these birds nest? Where is the nest built? Of what ma- terial? How is it concealed? What is the color of the eggs?

6. Do the young birds resemble in color their father or their mother? Why is this an advantage?

7. Is the redwing ever seen in fields adjoining the marshes? What is he doing there? Does he walk or hop when looking for food? What is the food of the redwings? Do they ever damage grain? Do they not protect grain more than they damage it?

8. What great good do the redwings do for forest trees? For orchards?

9. At what time in the summer do the redwings disappear from the swamps?

Where do they gather in flocks? Where is their special feeding ground on the way south for the winter?

Page 120 (PDF 146)

120 Animals

The Baltimore oriole

The Baltimore Oriole

I know his name, I know his note, That so with rapture takes my soul; Like flame the gold beneath his throat, His glossy cope is black as coal. O Oriole, it is the song You sang me from the cottonwood, Too young to feel that I was young, Too glad to guess if life were good. — WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS Dangling from the slender, drooping branches of the elm in winter, these pocket nests look like some strange persistent fruit; and, indeed, they are the fruit of much labor on the part of the oriole weavers, those skilled artisans of the bird world. Sometimes the oriole " For the summer voyage his hammock swings " in a sapling, placing it near the main stem and near the top; otherwise it is almost invariably hung at the end of branches and is rarely less than twenty feet from the ground. The nest is pocket- shaped, and usually about seven inches long, and four and a half inches wide at the largest part, which is the bottom. The top is attached to forked twigs at the Y so that the mouth or door will be kept open to allow the bird to pass in and out; when within, the weight of the bird causes the opening to contract somewhat and protects the inmate from prying eyes.

Often the pocket hangs free so that the breezes may rock it, but in one case we found a nest with the bottom stayed to a twig by guy lines. The bottom is much more closely woven than the upper part for a very good reason, since the open meshes admit air to the sitting bird. The nest is lined with hair or other soft material, and although this is added last, the inside of the nest is woven first. The ori-

Page 121 (PDF 147)

Birds 121

oles like to build the framework of twine, and it is marvelous how they will loop this around a twig almost as evenly knotted as if crocheted; in and out of this net the mother bird with her long, sharp beak weaves bits of wood fiber, strong, fine grass, and scraps of weeds. The favorite lining is horsehair, which simply cushions the bottom of the pocket. Dr". Detwiler had a pet oriole which built her nest of his hair, which she pulled from his head; is it possible that orioles get their supply of horsehair in a similar way? If we put bright-colored twine or narrow ribbons in convenient places, the orioles will weave them into the nest, but the strings should not be long lest the birds become entangled. If the nest is strong the birds may use it a second year. That Lord Baltimore found in new America a bird wearing his colors must have cheered him greatly; and it is well for us that this brilliant bird brings to our minds kindly thoughts of that tolerant, high-minded English nobleman. The oriole's head, neck, throat, and part of the back are black; the wings are black but the feathers are margined with white; the tail is black except that the ends of the outer feathers are yellow; all the rest of the bird is golden orange, a luminous color which makes him seem a splash of brilliant sun- shine. The female, although marked much the same, has the back so dull and mottled that it looks olive-brown; the rump, breast, and under parts are yellow but by no means showy. The advantage of these quiet colors to the mother bird is obvious, since it is she that makes the nest and sits in it without attracting attention to its location. In fact, when she is sitting, her brilliant mate places himself far enough away to distract the attention of meddlers, yet near enough for her to see the flash of his breast in the sunshine and to hear his rich and cheering song. He is a good spouse and brings her the ma- terials for the nest which she weaves in, hanging head downward from a twig and using her long sharp beak for a shuttle.

And his glorious song is for her alone. Some hold that no two orioles have the C. R. Crosby An oriole's nest, anchored to the windward same song, and I know of two individuals at least whose songs were sung by no other birds: one gave a phrase from the Waldvogel's song in Siegfried; the other whis- tled over and over, " Sweet birdie, hello, hello/7 The orioles can chatter and scold as well as sing.

The oriole is a brave defender of his nest and a most devoted father, working hard to feed his ever-hungry nestlings; we can hear these hollow mites peeping for more food, " Tee dee dee, tee dee dee/7 shrill and constant, if we stop for a mo- ment under the nest in June. The young birds dress in the safe colors of the mother, the males not donning their bright plumage until the second year. A brilliant col- ored fledgling would not live long in a world where sharp eyes are in constant quest for little birds to fill empty stom- achs.

The food of the oriole places it among our most beneficial birds, since it is always ready to cope with the hairy cater- pillars avoided by most birds; it has learned to abstract the caterpillar from his spines and is thus able to swallow him minus his

Page 122 (PDF 148)

122 Animals

Young orioles just out of the nest " whiskers/' The orioles are waging a great war against the terrible brown-tail and gypsy moths; they also eat click beetles and many other noxious insects. Once when we were breeding big caterpillars in the Cornell University Insectary, an oriole came in through the open windows of Leonard K. Beyer An orchard oriole the greenhouse, and thinking he had found a bonanza proceeded to work it, carrying off our precious crawlers before we discovered what was happening. The orioles winter in Central America and give us scarcely four months of their company. They do not usually appear be- fore May and leave in early September.

SUGGESTED READING — American Bird Biographies, by A. A. Allen; Audubon Bird Leaflet 26; Bird-House to Let, by Mary F. Terrel; Bird Stories from Bur- roughs, by John Burroughs; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; Pathways in Science, by Gerald S. Craig and Co-authors, Book 3, Our Wide,

29. Wide World; also, readings on pages 28LESSON 31

The Oriole

LEADING THOUGHT — The oriole is the most skillful of all our bird architects. It is also one of our prized song birds and is very beneficial to the farmer and the fruit grower because of the insect pests which it destroys.

METHOD — Begin during winter or early spring with a study of the nest, which may be obtained from the elms of the roadsides. During the first week in May, give the questions concerning the birds and their habits. Let the pupils keep the questions in their notebooks and answer them when they have opportunity. The

Page 123 (PDF 149)

observations should be summed up once a week.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where did you find the nest? On what species of tree? Was it near the trunk of the tree or the

tip of the branch? 2. What is the shape of the nest? How long is it? How wide? Is the opening as large as the bottom of the nest? How is it hung to the twigs so that the opening remains open and does not pull together with the weight of the bird at the bottom?

Is the bottom of the nest stayed to a twig or does it hang loose?

3. With what material and how is the nest fastened to the branches? Of what material is the outside made? How is it woven together? Is it more loosely woven at the top than at the bottom? How many kinds of material can you find in the out- side of the nest?

4. With what is the nest lined? How far up is it lined? With what tool was the nest woven? If you put out bright-colored bits of ribbon and string do you think the orioles will use them? Why should you not put out long strings?

5. At what date did you first see the Baltimore oriole? Why is it called the Baltimore oriole? How many other names has it? Describe in the following way the colors of the male oriole: top of head, back, wings, tail, throat, breast, under parts. What are the colors of his mate?

How would it endanger the nest and nest- lings if the mother bird were as bright colored as the father bird?

6. Which weaves the nest, the father or the mother bird? Does the former assist in any way in nest building?

7. Where does the father bird stay and what does he do while the mother bird is sitting on the eggs?

8. What is the oriole's song? Has he more than one song? What other notes has he? After the young birds hatch, does the father bird help take care of them?

9. By the middle of June the young birds are usually hatched; if you know where an oriole nest is hung, listen and describe the call of the nestlings for food.

10. Which parent do the young birds resemble in their colors? Why is this a benefit?

11. What is the oriole's food? How is the oriole of benefit to us in ways in which other birds are not?

12. Do the orioles use the same nest two years in succession? How long does the oriole stay in the North? Where does it spend its winters?

Hush/ 'tis he/ My oriole, my glance of summer fire, Is come at last, and, ever on the watch, Twitches the packthread I had lightly wound About the bough to help his housekeeping, — Twitches and scouts by turns, blessing his luck, Yet fearing me who laid it in his way, Nor, more than wiser we in our affairs, Divines the Providence that hides and helps.

Heave, ho! Heave, ho/ he whistles as the twine Slackens its hold; once more, now/ and a flash Lightens across the sunlight to the elm Where his mate dangles at her cup of felt.

— " Under The Willows/' Lowell

Page 124 (PDF 150)

The Crow

Thoreau says: " What a perfectly New England sound is this voice of the crow!

If you stand still anywhere in the outskirts of the town and listen, this is perhaps the sound which you will be most sure to hear, rising above all sounds of human industry and leading your thoughts to some far-away bay in the woods. The bird sees the white man come and the Indian withdraw, but it withdraws not. Its untamed voice is still heard above the tinkling of the forge. It sees a race pass away, but it passes not away. It remains to remind us of aboriginal nature/7 The crow is probably the most intelligent of all our native birds. It is quick to learn and clever in action, as many a farmer will testify who has tried to keep it out of corn fields with various devices, the harmless character of which the crow soon understood perfectly. Of all our birds, this one has the longest list of virtues and of sins, as judged from our stand- point; but we should listen to both sides of the case before we pass judgment. I find with crows, as with people, that I like some more than I do others. I do not like at all the cunning old crow which steals the suet I put on the trees in winter for the chickadees and nuthatches; and I have hired a boy with a shotgun to protect the eggs and nestlings of the robins and other birds in my neighborhood from the rav- ages of one or two cruel old crows that have developed the nest-hunting habit. On the other hand, I became a sincere admirer of a crow flock which worked in a field close to my country home, and I have been the chosen friend of several tame crows who were even more interesting than they were mischievous.

The crow is larger than any other of our common black birds; the northern raven is still larger, but is very rarely seen.

Although the crow's feathers are black, yet in the sunlight a beautiful purple iridescence plays over the plumage, espe- cially about the neck and back; it has a compact but not ungraceful body, and long, powerful wings; its tail is medium sized and is not notched at the end; its feet are long and strong; the track shows

Page 125 (PDF 151)

three toes directed forward and one long one directed backward. The crow does not sail through the air as does the hawk, but progresses with an almost constant flapping of the wings. Its beak is very strong and is used for tearing the flesh of its prey and for defense, and in fact for almost anything that a beak could be used for; its eye is all black and is very keen and intelligent. When hunting for food in the field, it usually walks, but sometimes hops. The raven and the fish crows are the nearest relatives of the American crow, and next to them the jays.

We should hardly think that the blue jay and the crow were related to look at them, but when we come to study their habits, much is to be found in common.

The crow's nest is usually very large; it is made of sticks, of grape vines and bark, sod, horsehair, moss, and grasses. It is placed in trees or in tall bushes rarely less than twenty feet from the ground. The eggs are pale bluish green or nearly white with brownish markings. The young crows hatch in April or May. Both parents are devoted in the care of the young, and remain with them during most of the summer. I have often seen a mother crow feeding her young ones which were following her with obstreperous caws, al- though they were as large as she. While the note of the crow is harsh Herbert E. Gray A crow's nest and eggs Young crows are a noisy lot when close at hand, it has a musical qual- ity in the distance. Mr. Mathews says: " The crow when he sings is nothing short of a clown; he ruffles his feathers, stretches his neck, like a cat with a fish bone in her throat, and with a most tremen- dous effort delivers a series of hen-like squawks." But aside from his caw, the crow has some very seductive soft notes.

I have held long conversations with two pet crows, talking with them in a high, soft tone, and finding that they answered readily in a like tone in a most responsive way. I have also heard these same tones among the wild crows when they were talking together; one note is a guttural tremolo, most grotesque.

Crows gather in flocks for the winter; these flocks number from fifty to several hundred individuals, all having a common roosting place, usually in pine or hemlock forests or among other evergreens. They go out from these roosts during the day to get food, often making a journey of many miles. During the nesting season they scatter in pairs, and they do not gather again in flocks until the young are fully grown. When crows are feeding in the fields there is usually, if not always, a sentinel posted on some high point so that he can give warning of danger. This sentinel is

Page 126 (PDF 152)

126 Animals

Verne Morton The story of a take-off. With the third wing beat the crow is away an experienced bird and is keen to detect a dangerous from a harmless intruder. I once made many experiments with these sentinels; I finally became known to those of a particular flock and I was allowed to approach within a few yards of where the birds were feeding, a privilege not accorded to any other person in the neigh- borhood.

The crow is a general feeder and will eat almost any food; generally, however, it finds its food upon the ground. The food given to nestlings is very largely in- sects, and many pests are thus destroyed.

The crows do harm to the farmer by pulling the sprouting com and by destroying the eggs and young of poultry. They also do much harm by destroying the eggs and nestlings of other birds which are bene- ficial to the farmer; they also do some harm by distributing the seeds of poison ivy and other noxious plants. All these must be set down in the account against the crow, but on the credit side must be placed the fact that it does a tremendous amount of good work for the farmer by eating injurious insects, especially the grubs and cutworms which work in the ground, destroying the roots of grasses and grains. It also kills many mice and other rodents which are destructive to crops.

One of the best methods of preventing crows from taking sprouting com is to treat the seed corn with some strongsmelling substance, such as tar.

If any of the pupils in your school have had any experience with tame crows they will relate interesting examples of the love of the crow for glittering objects. I once knew a tame crow which stole all of the thimbles in the house and buried them in the garden; he would watch for a thimble to be laid aside when the sewing was dropped, and would seize it almost immediately. This same crow per- sisted in taking the clothespins off the line and burying them, so that he was finally imprisoned on wash-clays. He was fond of playing marbles with a little boy of the family. The boy would shoot a marble into a hole and then Billy, the crow, would take a marble in his beak and drop it into the hole. The bird seemed to understand the game and was highly indignant if the boy played out of turn and made shots twice in succession.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 77; Bird Stories, by Edith M. Patch; Bird Stories from Burroughs, by John Burroughs; The Crow in its Relation to Agriculture, by E. R. Kalmbach (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bul- letin 1102); Our Baclcdoor Neighbors, by Frank C. Pellett; The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock; The Stir of Nature, by William H. Carr (Cleo and Mark); Wild Animals I Have Known, by Er- nest Thompson Seton; also, readings on pages 28-29. LESSON 32 THE CROW LEADING THOUGHT — The crow has the keenest intelligence of all our common birds. It does good work for us and also does damage. We should study its ways before we pronounce judgment, for in some localities it may be a true friend and in others an enemy. METHOD — This work should begin in winter with an effort on the part of the

Page 127 (PDF 153)

boys to discover the food of the crows while snow is on the ground. This is a good time to study their habits and their roosts. The nests are also often seen in winter, although usually built in evergreens. The nesting season is in early April, and the questions about the nests should be given then. Let the other ques- tions be given when convenient. The flight, the notes, the sentinels, the food, the benefit and damage may all be taken as separate topics.

The following topics may be given to correlate with work in English: "What a pet crow of my acquaintance did "; " Evidences of crow intelligence "; " A plea a crow might make in self-defense to the farmer who wished to shoot him "; " The best methods of preventing crows from stealing planted corn." OBSERVATIONS — i. How large is the crow compared with other black birds? 2. Describe its colors when seen in the sunlight.

3. Describe the general shape of the crow.

4. Are its wings long and slender or short and stout?

5. Is the tail long or short? Is it notched or straight across the end?

6. Describe the crow's feet. Are they large and strong or slender? How many toes does the track show in the snow or mud? How many are directed forward and how many backward?

7. Describe a crow's flight compared with that of the hawk.

8. Describe its beak and what it is used for.

9. What is the color of the crow's eye? 10. When hunting for food does the crow hop or walk?

11. Which are the crow's nearest rela- tives?

12. Where and of what material do the crows build their nests?

13. Describe the eggs. At what time of the year do the young crows hatch? Do both parents take care of and feed the young? How long do the parents care for the young after they leave the nest?

14. What are the notes of the crow? If you have heard one give any note besides " caw," describe it.

15. Where and how do crows live in winter? Where do they live in summer?

16. Do they post sentinels if they are feeding in the fields? If so, describe the ac- tion of the sentinel on the approach of people. 17. Upon what do the crows feed? What is fed to the nestlings?

18. How do the crows work injury to the farmer? How do they benefit the farmer? Do you think they do more bene- fit than harm to the farmer and fruitgrower? 19. Have you known of instances of the crow's fondness for shining or glitter- ing articles, like pieces of crockery or tin?

The Cardinal Grosbeak

There never lived a Lord Cardinal who possessed robes of state more brilliant in color than the plumage of this bird. By the way, I wonder how many of us ever think when we see the peculiar red called cardinal, that it gained its name from the dress of this high functionary of the church? The cardinal grosbeak is the best name for the redbird because that describes it exactly, both as to its color and its chief characteristic, since its beak is thick and large; the beak is also red, which is a rare color in beaks, and in order to make its redness more emphatic it is set in a frame of black feathers. The use of such a large beak is unmistakable, for it is strong enough to crush the hardest of seed shells or to crack the hardest and driest of grains.

What cheer/ What cheer!

That is the grosbeak's way, With his sooty face and his coat of red sings Maurice Thompson. Besides the name given above, this bird has been

Page 128 (PDF 154)

128 Animals

After Audubon Leaflet 18 The cardinal grosbeak called in different localities the redbird, Virginia redbird, crested redbird, winter redbird, Virginia nightingale, the red corn-cracker; but it remained for James Lane Allen to give it another name in his masterpiece, The Kentucky Cardinal. The cardinal is a trifle smaller than the robin and is by no means slim and grace- ful, like the catbird or the scarlet tanager, but is quite stout and is a veritable chunk of brilliant color and bird dignity. The only bird that rivals him in redness is the scarlet tanager, which has black wings; the summer tanager is also a red bird, but is not so vermilion and is more slender and lacks the crest. The cardinal surely finds his crest useful in expressing his emotions; when all is serene, it lies back flat on the head, but with any excitement, whether of joy or surprise or anger, it lifts until it is as peaked as an old-fashioned nightcap.

The cardinal's mate is of quiet color; her back is greenish gray and her breast buffy, while her crest, wings, and tail reflect in faint ways the brilliancy of his costume.

The redbird's song is a stirring succes- sion of syllables uttered in a rich, ringing tone, and may be translated in a variety of ways. I have heard him sing a thousand times " tor-re'-do, tor-re'-do, tor-re'-do/' but Dr. Dawson has heard him sing " che'- pew, che'-pew, we'-woo, we'-woo "; " bird-ie, bird-ie, bird-ie; tschew, tschew, tschew "; and " chit-e-kew, chit-e-kew; heweet, he-weet." His mate breaks the cus- tom of other birds of her sex and sings a sweet song, somewhat softer than his.

Both birds utter a sharp note " tsip, tsip." The nest is built in bushes, vines, or low trees, often in holly, laurel, or other low evergreens, and is rarely more than six or eight feet above the ground. It is made of twigs, weed stems, tendrils, the bark of the grapevine, and coarse grass; it is lined with fine grass and rootlets; it is rather loosely constructed but firm and is well hidden, for it causes these birds great anguish to have their nest discovered. Three or four eggs are laid, which are bluish white or grayish, dully marked with brown. The father cardinal is an exemplary husband and father; he cares for and feeds his mate tenderly and sings to her gloriously while she is sitting; and he works hard catching insects for the nestlings. He is also a brave defender of his nest and will attack any intruder, however large, with undaunted courage. The fledglings have the dull color of the mother and have dark-colored bills.

Until the young birds are able to take care of themselves, their dull color somewhat protects them from the keen eyes of their enemies. If the male fledglings were the color of their father, probably not one would escape a tragic death. While the mother bird is hatching the second Leonard K. Beyer The cardinal builds its nest in thick bushes or vines

Page 129 (PDF 155)

brood, the father keeps the first brood with him and cares for them; often the whole family remains together during the winter, making a small flock. How- ever, the flocking habit is not characteris- tic of these birds, and we only see them in considerable numbers when the exigencies of seeking food in the winter naturally bring them together.

The cardinals are fond of the shrubbery and thickets of river bottoms near grain fields, or where there is plenty of wild grass, and they only visit our premises when driven to us by winter hunger. Their food consists of the seeds of rank weeds, corn, wheat, rye, oats, beetles, grasshop- pers, flies, and to some extent, wild and garden berries; but they never occur in sufficient numbers to be a menace to our crops. The cardinals may often be seen in the cornfields after the harvest, and will husk an overlooked ear of corn and crack the kernels with their beaks in a most dexterous manner. During the winter we may coax them to our grounds by scatter- ing corn in some place not frequented by cats; thus, we may induce them to nest near us, since the cardinal is not naturally a migrant but likes to stay in one locality summer and winter. It has been known to come as far north as Boston and southern New York, but it is found in greatest numbers in our Southern states.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 18; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 33

The Cardinal Grosbeak

LEADING THOUGHT — The cardinal is the most brilliantly colored of all our birds, and one of our most cheerful sing- ers. We should seek to preserve it as a beautiful ornament to our groves and grounds. METHOD — This work must be done by personal observation in the field. The field notes should be discussed in school.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Do you know the cardinal? Why is it so called?

2. How many names do you know for this bird?

Leonard "K. Beyer The cardinal sings a beautiful song 3. Is the cardinal as large as the robin? Is it graceful in shape?

4. Is there any color except red upon it? If so? where?

5. What other vividly red birds have we and how can we distinguish them from the cardinal?

6. Describe the cardinal's crest and how it looks when lifted. Why do you think it lifts it?

7. Describe its beak as to color, shape, and size. What work is such a heavy beak made for?

8. Is the cardinal's mate the same color as he? Describe the color of her head, back, wings, tail, breast, 9. Can you imitate the cardinal's song? What words do you think he seems to sing? Does his mate sing also? Is it usual for mother birds to sing? What other notes besides songs do you hear him utter? 10. Where does the cardinal usually build its nest? How high from the ground? Of what materials? Is it compact or bulky? How many eggs are there and what are their colors? 11. How does the father bird act while his mate is brooding? How does he help take care of the young in the nest? 12. How do the fledglings differ in color from their father? From their mother? Of what use to the young birds is their sober color?

Page 130 (PDF 156)

130 Animals

13. What happens to the fledglings of the first brood while the mother is hatching the eggs of the second brood?

14. In what localities do you most often see the cardinals? Do you ever see them in flocks?

15. What is the food of the cardinals?

What do they feed their nestlings?

16. Flow can you induce the cardinals to build near your home?

17. What do you know about the laws protecting birds? Why should such laws be observed?

Along the dust-white river road. The saucy redbird chirps and trills; His liquid notes resound and rise Until they meet the cloudless skies, And echo o'er the distant hills. — NAYLOR

Geese

To be called a goose should be con- sidered most complimentary, for of all the birds the goose is probably the most intelligent. An observant lady who keeps geese on her farm assures me that no animal, not even dog or horse, has the intelligence of the goose. She says that these birds learn a lesson after a few repetitions, and surely Canada geese in a field of grain her geese were patterns of obedience.

While I was watching them one morning, they started for the brook via the cornfield; she called to them sharply, " No, no, you mustn't go that way! " They stopped and conferred; she spoke again and they waited, looking at her as if to make up their minds to this exercise of self-sacrifice; but when she spoke the third time they left the cornfield and took the other path to the brook. She could bring her geese into their house at any time of day by calling to them, " Home, home! " As soon as they heard these words, they would start and not stop until the last one was housed.

In ancient Greece maidens made pets of geese; and often there was such a devotion between the bird and the girl that when the latter died her statue with that of the goose was carved on her burial tablet. The loyalty of a pet goose came under the ob- servation of Miss Ada Georgia. A lone gander was the special pet of a small boy in Elmira, New York, who took sole care of him. The bird obeyed commands like a dog but would never let his little master out of his sight if he could avoid it; occasionally he would appear in the school yard, where the pupils would tease him by pretending to attack his master at the risk of being so severely whipped with the bird's wings that it was a test of bravery among the boys so to challenge him. His fidelity to his master was ex- treme; once when the boy was ill in bed, the bird wandered about the yard honking disconsolately and refused to eat; he was driven to the side of the house where his master could look from the window and he immediately cheered up, took his food, and refused to leave his post beneath the window while the illness lasted.

The goose is a stately bird whether on land or water; its long legs give it good proportions when walking, and the neck, be- ing so much longer than that of the duck, gives an appearance of grace and dignity. The duck on the other hand is beautiful

Page 131 (PDF 157)

Birds 131

only when on the water or on the wing; ciple of a propeller; but when swimming its short legs, placed far back and far out at around in the pond she uses them at al- the sides, make it a most ungraceful most right angles to the body. Although walker. The beak of the goose is harder in they are such excellent oars they are also texture and is not flat like the duck's; no efficient on land; when running, her body wonder the bird was a favorite with the an- may waddle somewhat, but her head and cient Greeks, for the high ridge from the neck are held aloft in stately dignity, beak to the forehead resembles the fa- The Toulouse are our common gray mous Grecian nose. The plumage of geese geese; the Embdens are pure white with orange bill and bright blue eyes. The Afri- can geese have a black head with a large black knob on the base of the black bill; is very beautiful and abundant and for this reason they are profitable domestic birds. They are picked late in summer 7 when molted; the at feathers this time are the nearly ready to be the neck is long, snakelike, light gray, with' geese flap their a dark stripe down the back; the wings and wings often and set showers of loose feath- tail are dark gray; there is a dewlap at the ers flying. A stocking or a bag is slipped throat. The brown Chinese geese have s^fm*- J-~U ^ "U.J_,J'«T 1 1 _1 . • • i i 11 11 i f 11 it -. - over the bird's head and she is turned breast side up with her head firmly be- tween the knees or under the arm of the picker. The tips of the feathers are seized with the fingers and come out easily; only the breast, the under parts, and the feathalso a black beak and a black knob at the base of the bill. The neck is light brown with a dull yellowish stripe down the neck. The back is dark brown; breast, wings, and tail are grayish brown. The white Chinese are shaped like the brown ers beneath the wings are plucked. Geese Chinese, but the knob and bill are orange do not seem to suffer while being plucked and the eyes light blue, except through the temporary inconven- ience and ignominy of having their heads thrust into a bag; their dignity is hurt more than their bodies.

The wings of geese are very large and beautiful; although our domestic geese have lost their powers of flight to a great extent, yet they often stretch their wings and take little flying hops, teetering along as if they can scarcely keep on earth; this must surely be reminiscent of the old instinct for traveling in the skies. The tail of the goose is a half circle and is spread when flying; although it is short, it seems to be sufficiently long to act as a rudder.

The legs of the goose are much longer than those of the duck; they are not set so far back toward the rear of the body, and therefore the goose is the much better runner of the two. The track made by the goose's foot is a triangle with two scallops on one side made by the webs between the three front toes; the hind toe is placed high up; the foot and the unfeathered por- tion of the leg, protected by scales, are used as oars when the bird is swimming. When she swims forward rapidly, her feet extend out behind her and act on the prinTHE HABITS OF GEESE Geese are monogamous and are loyal to their mates. Old-fashioned people de- clare that they choose their mates on Saint Valentine's Day, but this is a pretty myth; when once mated, the pair live together year after year until one dies; an interest- ing instance of this is one of the traditions in my own family. A fine pair of geese belonging to my pioneer grandfather had been mated for several years and had reared handsome families; but one spring a conceited young gander fell in love with the old goose, and as he was young and lusty, he whipped her legitimate lord and master and triumphantly carried her away, although she was manifestly disgusted with this change in her domestic fortunes.

The old gander sulked and refused to be comforted by the blandishments of any young goose whatever. Later the old pair disappeared from the farmyard and the upstart gander was left wifeless. It was in- ferred that the old couple had run away with each other into the encompassing wilderness and much sympathy was felt for them because of this sacrifice of their

Page 132 (PDF 158)

132 Animals

lives for loyalty. However, this was mis- placed sentiment, for later in the summer the happy pair was discovered in a distant " slashing " with a fine family of goslings, and all were brought home in triumph.

The old gander, while not able to cope with his rival, was still able to trounce any of the animal marauders which ap- proached his home and family.

The goose lines her nest with down and the soft feathers which she plucks from her breast. The gander is very devoted to his goose while she is sitting; he talks to her in gentle tones and is fierce in her defense.

The eggs are about twice as large as those of the hen and have the ends more A. A. Allen A pair of Canada geese. While one broods the eggs the other stands guard rounded. The period of incubation is four weeks. The goslings are beautiful little creatures, covered with soft down, and have large, bright eyes. The parents give them most careful attention from the first.

One family which I studied consisted of the parents and eighteen goslings. The mother was a splendid African bird; she walked with dignified step, her graceful neck assuming serpentine curves; and she always carried her beak "lifted/' which gave her an appearance of majestic haugh- tiness. The father was just a plebeian white gander, probably of Embden descent, but he was a most efficient protector. The family always formed a proces- sion in going to the creek, the majestic mother at .the head, the goslings following her and the gander bringing up the rear to be sure there were no stragglers; if a gosling strayed away or fell behind, the male went after it, pushing it back into the family circle. When entering the coop at night he pushed the little ones in gently with his bill; when the goslings took their first swim, both parents gently pushed them into the water, " rooted them in," as the farmer said. Any attempt to take liberties with the brood was met with bristling anger and defiance on the part of the gander; the mistress of the farm told me that he had whipped her black and blue when she tried to interfere with the goslings. The gander and goose always show sus- picion and resentment by opening the mouth wide and making a hissing noise, showing the whole round tongue in mocking defiance. When the gander at- tacks, he thrusts his head forward, even with or below the level of his back, seizes his victim firmly with his hard, toothed bill so that it cannot get away, and then with his strong wings beats the life out of it. I remember vividly a whipping which a gander gave me when I was a child, hold- ing me fast by the blouse while he laid on the blows.

Geese feed much more largely upon land vegetation than do ducks; a good growth of clover and grass makes excellent pasture for them; in the water, they feed upon water plants but do not eat insects and animals to any extent.

Undoubtedly goose language is varied and expresses many things. Geese talk to each other and call from afar; they shriek in warning and in general make such a turmoil that people do not enjoy it. The goslings, even when almost grown, keep up a constant " pee wee, pee wee," which is nerve-racking. There is a good oppor- tunity for some interesting investigations in studying out just what the different notes of the geese mean.

The goose is very particular about her toilet; she cleans her breast and back and beneath her wings with her bill; and she cleans her bill with her foot; she also cleans the top of her head with her foot and the under side of her wing with the

Page 133 (PDF 159)

foot of that side. When oiling her feathers, she starts the oil gland flowing with her beak, then rubs her head over the gland until it is well oiled; she then uses her head as a " dauber " to apply the oil

Birds 133

to the feathers of her back and breast.

When thus polishing her feathers, she twists the head over and over and back and forth to add to its efficiency.

The Jack Miner Migratory Bird Foundation, Inc.

One corner of Jack Miner's Bird Sanctuary, Kingsville, Ontario, Canada, where Canada geese find food, shelter } and protection

Wild Geese

There is a sound, that, to the weather- wise farmer, means cold and snow, even though it is heard through the hazy atmos- phere of an Indian summer day; and that is the honking of wild geese as they pass on their southward journey. And there is' not a more interesting sight anywhere in the autumn landscape than the wedgeshaped flock of these long-necked birds with their leader at the front apex. " The wild goose trails his harrow/' sings the poet; but only the aged can remember the old-fashioned harrow which makes this simile graphic. The honking which reveals to us the passing flock, before our eyes can discern the birds against the sky, is the call of the wise old gander who is the leader, to those following him, and their return salute. He knows the way on this long thousand-mile journey, and knows it by instinct and in part by the topography of the country. If ever fog or storm hides the earth from his view, he is likely to be- come confused, to the dismay of his flock, which follows him to the earth with many lonely and distressful cries.

The northern migration takes place in April and May, and the southern from October to December. The journey is made with stops for rest and refreshment at certain selected places, usually some secluded pond or lake. The food of wild

Page 134 (PDF 160)

geese consists of water plants, seeds and corn, and some of the smaller animals liv- ing in water. Although the geese come to rest on the water, they go to the shore to feed. In California, the wild geese are dreaded visitors of the cornfields, and men with guns are employed regularly to keep them off.

The nests are made of sticks lined with down, usually along the shores of streams, sometimes on tree stumps and sometimes in deserted nests of the osprey. There are A. R. Dugmore Wild geese flying in even ranks only four or five eggs laid and both parents are devoted to the young, the gander bravely defending his nest and family from the attacks of any enemies.

Although there are several species of wild geese on the Atlantic Coast, the one called by this name is usually the Canada goose. This bird is a superb creature, brown above and gray beneath, with head, neck, tail, bill, and feet of black. These black trimmings are highly ornamental and, as if to emphasize them, there is a white crescent-shaped " bib " extending from just back of the eyes underneath the head. This white patch is very striking, and gives one the impression of a bandage for sore throat. It is regarded as a call- color, and is supposed to help keep the flock together; the side tail-coverts are also white and may serve as another guide to follow.

Often some wounded or wearied bird of the migrating flock spends the winter in farmyards with domestic geese. One morning a neighbor of mine found that during the night a wild gander, injured in some way, had joined his flock. The stranger was treated with much courtesy by its new companions as well as by the farmer's family and soon seemed per- fectly at home. The next spring he mated with one of the domestic geese. In the late summer, my neighbor, mindful of wild geese habits, clipped the wings of the gan- der so that he would be unable to join any passing flock of his wild relatives. As the migrating season approached, the gander became very uneasy; not only was he un- easy and unhappy always but he insisted that his wife share his misery of unrest.

He spent days in earnest remonstrance with her and, lifting himself by his cropped wings to the top of the barnyard fence, he insisted that she keep him company on this, for webbed feet, uneasy rest- ing place. Finally, after many days of tribulation, the two valiantly started south on foot. News was received of their prog- ress for some distance and then they were lost to us. During the winter our neighbor visited a friend living eighteen miles to the southward and found in his barnyard the errant pair. They had become tired of mi- grating by tramping and had joined the farmer's flock; but we were never able to determine the length of time required for this journey.

SUGGESTED READING — Audubon Bird Leaflet 106; Birds in the Wilderness, by George M. Sutton; Farm Animals, by James G. Lawson; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits, Book 3, Surprises; The Pet Boot, by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on pages 28-29. LESSON 34 GEESE LEADING THOUGHT — Geese are the most intelligent of the domesticated birds, and they have many interesting habits. METHOD — This lesson should not be

Page 135 (PDF 161)

given unless there are geese where the pupils may observe them. The questions should be given a few at a time and an- swered individually by the pupils after the observations are made.

OBSERVATIONS — i. What is the chief

difference between the appearance of a goose and a duck? How does the beak of the goose differ from that of the duck in shape and in texture? Describe the nostrils and their situation.

2. What is the difference in shape be- tween the neck of the goose and that of the duck?

3. What can you say about the plumage of geese? How are geese " picked "? At what time of year? From what parts of the body are the feathers plucked?

4. Are the wings of the goose large com- pared with the body? How do geese exer- cise their wings? Describe the tail of the goose and how it is used. 5. How do the legs and feet of the goose differ from those of the duck? Describe the goose's foot. How many toes are webbed? Where is the other toe? What is the shape of the track made by the goose's foot? Which portions of the legs are used for oars? When the goose is swimming forward where are her feet? When turning around how does she use them? Does the goose waddle when walking or running as a duck does? Why? Does a goose toe in when walking? Why?

6. Describe the shape and color of the following breeds of domestic geese: The Toulouse, the Embden, the African, and the Chinese.

Habits Of Geese

1. What is the chief food of geese?

What do they find in the water to eat? How does their food differ from that of ducks?

2. How do geese differ from hens in the matter of mating and nesting? At what time of year do geese mate? Does a pair usually remain mated for life?

3. Describe the nest and compare the eggs with those of hens. Describe the young goslings in general appearance. With what are they covered? What care do the parents give to their goslings? De- scribe how the parents take their family afield. How do they induce their goslings to go into the water for the first time? How do they protect them from enemies? 4. How does the gander or goose fight? What are the chief weapons? How is the head held when the attack is made?

5. How does the goose clean her feath- ers, wings, and feet? How does she oil her feathers? Where does she get the oil and with what does she apply it?

6. How much of goose language do you understand? What is the note of alarm?

How are defiance and distrust expressed?

How does a goose look when hissing?

What is the constant note which the gosling makes? 7. Give such instances as you may know illustrating the intelligence of geese, their loyalty and bravery.

8. " The Canada Goose, its appearance, nesting habits, and migrations," would be an interesting topic for discussion.

Page 136 (PDF 162)

Game Birds

1. RING-NECKED PHEASANTS. These birds, native to China, have been introduced into many other parts of the world. They were first brought to the United States in 1881 and since then have become common in many of the states. The cock is handsome and brightly colored, the hen an inconspicuous brown. These pheasants are found in fields and in hedgerows or brush- covered areas rather than in forested sections.

They feed chiefly on the ground, eating weed seeds, insects, ungarnered grain, and wild or waste fruit. In winter, whenever the ground is covered with crusted snow or ice, it is hard for them to get food and many of them starve unless man feeds them. Another difficulty of theirs in winter is that their long tail feathers get loaded with snow and ice, which keeps them from going about after food and even from seeking shelter.

(Photo by courtesy of Country Life in America)

2. WILD TURKEY. This game bird was once common from New England southward and west to the Rocky Mountains. It has been exterminated in the North, but it is still found locally in the South and West. Because the wild turkey thrives upon a variety of foods and because it can adapt itself to varied conditions of climate, it is again being introduced

in many sections of the country. (Photo by

L. W. Brownell) 3. NEST OF THE RUFFED GROUSE. The ruffed grouse, a much prized game bird, is native to the eastern and central United States. It is a very hardy bird, being able to withstand extreme cold, and to live on the buds and twigs of trees when insects, berries, and seeds are not available. In winter ruffed grouse take shelter at night in a "pocket" of snow or be- neath brush; in summer they usually roost in trees. In appearance this bird is not unlike the

dusky grouse (No. 5), (Photo by Marjorie

Ruth Ross) 4. EASTERN BOB WHITE or QUAIL. Found in the eastern United States, except peninsular Florida, and as far west as Colorado, except New Mexico and southern Texas, bobwhite or quail are permanent residents. They like open fields with brushy fence-corners or low bushes near at hand for protection from storm and enemies. The pretty song is often translated bob-white or buck-wheat. The nest is made upon the ground under a bunch of grass or some bush, and in it are laid ten to eighteen white eggs. The family or covey will remain together until spring, and at night will squat close together in a circle with tails together and heads out ready to scatter in all directions at the slightest indication of danger. In winter when quail are in this formation, they may be covered with snow; and if a crust of sleet or ice which they are unable to break should form, the entire covey may

smother or starve. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)

5. DUSKY GROUSE. A relative of the ruffed grouse, this species is found in the Rocky Mountain regions of the United States and

Canada. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)

6. A WOODCOCK ON ITS NEST. Except in the Far West the woodcock is found widespread over the United States. It winters in the South. It lives largely on earthworms and grubs for which it probes moist soft earth with a long, sensitive bill. The courtship songflights of the male are unique: with a call to his mate he rises into the air; by a series of loops he flies higher and higher until from a height of about two hundred feet he drops suddenly to a place on the ground very near where he started. The young quickly learn to fly, but until they do they are frequently carried from place to place by their mother who holds them between her legs with her feet.

(Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)

Page 137 (PDF 163)

[Blank or Illustrated Page Scan]

Page 138 (PDF 164)

The beginning of \the strut. These gobblers are strutting before the camera, hidden ^ by brush, in an endeavor to attract the hen turkey whose mating call the camera man is imitating

The Turkey

That the turkey and not the eagle should have been chosen for our national bird, was the conviction of Benjamin Franklin. It is a native of our country, it is beautiful as to plumage, and like the American Indian, it has never yielded en- tirely to the influences of civilization.

Through the hundreds of years of domes- tication it still retains many of its wild habits. In fact, it has many qualities in common with the red man. Take for instance its sun dance, which anyone who is willing to get up early enough in the morning and who has a flock of turkeys at hand can witness. Miss Ada Georgia made a pilgrimage to witness this dance and describes it thus: "While the dawn was still faint and gray, the long row of birds on the ridge-pole stood up, stretched legs and wings and flew down into the orchard beside the barnyard and began a curious, high-stepping, * flip-flop ' dance on the frosty grass. It consisted of little, awkward, up-and-down jumps, var- ied by forward springs of about a foot, with lifted wings. Both hens and males danced, the latter alternately strutting and hopping and all ' singing/ the hens calling a ' Quit, quit/ the males accompanying with a high-keyed rattle, sounding like a hard wood stick drawn rapidly along a picket fence. As the sun came up and the sky brightened, the exhibition ended suddenly when ' The Captain/ a great thirty pound gobbler and leader of the flock, made a rush at one of his younger breth- ren who had dared to be spreading a tail too near to his majesty/' The bronze breed resembles most closely our native wild turkey and is there- fore chosen for this lesson. The colors and markings of the plumage form the bronze turkey's chief beauty. Reaching from the skin of the neck halfway to the middle of the back is a collar of glittering bronze with greenish and purple iridescence, each

Page 139 (PDF 165)

feather tipped with a narrow jet band, the four. On the inner side of the gob- The remainder of the back is black except bier's legs, about one-third the bare space that each feather is edged with bronze. above the foot, is a wicked-looking spur The breast is like the collar and at its which is a most effective weapon. The center is a tassel of black bristles called wings are large and powerful; the turkey the beard which hangs limply downward flies well for such a large bird and usually when the birds are feeding; but when the roosts high, choosing trees or the ridge- gobbler stiffens his muscles to strut, this " " " * " pole of the bam for this purpose.

In many ways the turkeys are not more than half domesticated. They insistently prefer to spend their nights out of doors instead of under a roof. They are also great wanderers and thrive best when allowed to forage in the fields and woods for a part of their food.

The gobbler is the most vainglorious bird known to us; when he struts to show his flock of admiring hens how beautiful he is, he lowers his wings and spreads the of the hen are like those of the gobbler stiff primary quills until their tips scrape except that the bronze brilliance of breast, the ground, lifting meanwhile into a semibeard is thrust proudly forth. Occasionally the hen turkeys have a beard. The long quills, or primaries, of the wings are barred across with bands of black and white; the secondaries are very dark, luminous brown, with narrower bars of white. Each feather of the fan-shaped tail is banded with black and brown and ends with a black bar tipped with white; the tail-cov- erts are lighter brown but also have the black margin edged with white. The colors neck, and wings is dimmed by the faint line of white which tips each feather. The heads of all are covered with a warty wrinkled skin, bluish white on the crown, grayish blue about the eyes, and the other parts are red. Beneath the throat is a hanging fold called the wattle, and above the beak a fleshy pointed knob called the caruncle, which on the gobbler is prolonged so that it hangs over and be- low the beak. When the bird is angry these carunculated parts swell and grow more vivid in color, seeming to be gorged with blood. The color of the skin about the head is more extensive and brilliant in the gobblers than in the hens. The beak is slightly curved, short, stout, and sharp- pointed, yellowish at the tip and dark at the base.

The eyes are bright, dark hazel with a thin red line of iris. Just back of the eye is the opening of the ear, seemingly a mere hole, yet leading to a very efficient ear, upon which every smallest sound impinges. The legs of the young turkeys are nearly black, fading to a brownish gray when ma- ture. The legs and feet are large and stout, the middle toe of the three front ones being nearly twice the length of the one on either side; the hind toe is the shortest of circular fan his beautiful tail feathers; he protrudes his chest, and raises the iridescent plumage of his neck like a ruff to make a background against which he throws back his red, white, and blue deco- rated head. He moves forward with slow and mincing steps and calls attention to his grandeur by a series of most aggressive " gobbles/7 But we must say for the gob- bler that although he is vain he is also a brave fighter. When beginning a fight he advances with wings lowered and sidewise as if guarding his body with the spread wing. The neck and the sharp beak are outstretched and he makes the attack so suddenly that it is impossible to see whether he strikes with both wing and beak or only with the latter, as with fury he pounces upon his adversary apparently striving to rip his neck open with his spurs. Turkey hens usually begin to lay in April in this latitude (southern New York) and much earlier in more southern states. At nesting time each turkey hen strays off alone, seeking the most secluded spot she can find to lay the large, oval, brown-speckled eggs. Silent and sly, she slips away to the place daily, by the most roundabout ways, and never moving in the direction of the nest when she thinks herself observed. Sometimes the sight of

Page 140 (PDF 166)

any person near her nest will cause her to desert it. The writer has spent many hours when a child, sneaking in fence comers and behind stumps and tree trunks, stalking turkeys' nests. Incubation takes four weeks. The female is a most persistent sit- ter and care should be taken to see that she gets a good supply of food and water at this time. Good sound corn or wheat is the best food for her at this period. When sitting she is very cross and will fight most courageously when molested on her nest.

Turkey nestlings are rather large, with long, bare legs and scrawny, thin necks; they are very delicate during the first six weeks of their lives. Their call is a plaintive " peep, weep/' and when a little turkey feels lost its cry is expressive of great fear and misery. But if the mother is freely ranging she does not seem to be much affected by the needs of her brood; she will fight savagely for them if they are near her, but if they stray, and they usually do, she does not seem to miss or hunt for them, but strides serenely on her way, keeping up a constant crooning "kr-rit, kr-rit," to encourage them to follow. As a consequence, the chicks are lost, or get draggled and chilled by struggling through wet grass and leaves that are no obstacle to the mother's strong legs, and thus many die. If the mother is confined in a coop it should be so large and roomy that she can move about without trampling on the chicks, and it should have a dry floor, since dampness is fatal to the little ones. For the first week the chicks should be fed five times a day, and for the next five weeks they should have three meals a day.

They should be given only just about enough to fill each little crop and none should be left over to be trodden under their awkward little feet. Their quarters should be kept clean and free from vermin.

SUGGESTED READING — Farm Animals, by James G. Lawson; also, readings on pages 28-29.

Lesson 35

Turkeys

LEADING THOUGHT — The turkey is a native of America. It was introduced into Spain from Mexico about 1518, and since then has been domesticated. However, there are still in some parts of the country flocks of wild turkeys. It is a beautiful bird and has interesting habits.

METHOD — If the pupils could visit a flock of turkeys, the lesson would be given to a better advantage. If this is impossible, ask the questions a few at a time and let those pupils who have opportunities for observing the turkeys give their answers before the class.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Of what breed are

the turkeys you are studying: Bronze, Black, Buff, White Holland, or Narragan- sett?

2. What is the general shape and size of the turkey? Describe its plumage, not- ing every color which you can see in it.

Does the plumage of the hen turkey difr fer from that of the gobbler?

3. What is the covering of the head of the turkey, what is its color and how far does it extend down the neck of the bird?

Is it always the same color; if not, what causes the change? Is the head covering alike in shape and size on the male and the female? What is the part called that hangs from the front of the throat below the beak? From above the beak?

4. What is the color of the beak? Is it short or long, straight or curved? Where are the nostrils situated?

5. What is the color of the turkey's eyes? Do you think it is a keen-sighted bird?

6. Where are the ears? Do they show as plainly as a chicken's ears do? Are tur keys quick of hearing?

7. Do turkeys scratch like hens? Are they good runners? Describe the feet and legs as to shape, size, and color. Has the male a spur on his legs, and if so, where is it situated? For what is it used?

8. Can turkeys fly well? Are the wings small or comparatively large and strong for the weight of the body? Do turkeys prefer high or low places for perching when they sleep? Is it well to house and confine them in small buildings and parks as is done with other fowls?

9. Tell, as nearly as you can discover by close observation, how the gobbler sets

Page 141 (PDF 167)

Birds M1

each part of his plumage when he is scribe the turkey's egg, as well as you can, " showing off " or strutting. "What do you as to color, shape, and size. Can one tell it think is the bird's purpose in thus exhibit- by the taste from an ordinary hen's egg? ing his fine feathers? Does the " king of About how many eggs does the turkey hen the flock " permit any such action by lay in her nest before she begins to " get other gobblers in his company? broody " and want to sit? 10. Are turkeys timid and cowardly or 13. How many days of incubation ^ are independent and brave, ready to meet and required to hatch the turkey chick? Is it as fight anything which they think is threat- downy and pretty as other little chicks?

ening to their comfort and safety? How often should the young chicks be fed, 11. When turkeys fight, what parts of and what food do you think is best for their bodies seem to be used as weapons? them? Are turkey chicks as hardy as other Does the male " gobble " during a fight, chicks? or only as a challenge or in triumph when 14. Is the turkey hen generally a good victorious? Do the hen turkeys ever fight, mother? Is she cross or gentle when sitting or only the males? and when brooding her young? Is it pos12. How early in the spring does the sible to keep the mother turkey as closely turkey hen begin to lay? Does she nest confined with her brood as it is with the about the poultry yard and the bams or is mother hen? What supplies should be she likely to seek some secret and distant given to her in the way of food, grits, dustspot where she may hide her eggs? De- baths, etc.?

Page 142 (PDF 168)

Birds Of Marsh And Shore

1. SHOVELLER, SPOONBILL, OR BROADBILL. The range of the shoveller extends from Alaska in summer to Colombia, South America, in win- ter. With its uniquely long, broad bill, this shal- low-water 'dabbler" gathers up water and ooze; by means of the comblike teeth with

which the bill is equipped it strains out the in- sects and vegetable matter which are its fa- vorite food. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)

2. THE MALLARD. The range of the mallard in North America extends in summer south of the Arctic circle, east to Hudson Bay, and south to Lower California and Texas. In winter it is found from the Aleutian Islands south to Panama. Being a "dabbler" the mallard gen- erally feeds in shallow water, but it is very adaptable as to food and environment. From the economic standpoint it is the most impor- tant duck in the world, since it is the ancestor

of most domestic ducks, is 'widely distributed, and produces meat of good quality. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)

3. LESSER SCAUP DUCKS. This is one of the most common ducks in the open waters of rivers, larger lakes and bays, and along sea- coasts. Its food, consisting chiefly of insects, crustaceans, water snails, tadpoles, and aquatic plants, it secures by diving. In the Gulf states,

the lesser scaup is often called the " raft duck " because of the great numbers that collect into flocks and move about on the water. These rafts are sometimes a mile long. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)

4. PIED-BILLED GREBE ON ITS NEST. The sum- mer range of this grebe is from southern Canada to the southern United States; its winter range extends to Mexico and Cuba. It moves south when ice forms on northern streams, and re- turns when it breaks up in spring. Its food consists chiefly of aquatic animals and some water plants. To escape danger it dives rather than flies. This grebe, like others, often carries its young on its back, thus hiding them from observers; the mother can even dive with the

young and when she comes again to the sur- face keep them still concealed. (Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)

5. SPOTTED SANDPIPER APPROACHING ITS NEST.

The sandpiper (also called tip-up or tip-tail), said to be the most widely and commonly dis- tributed shore bird in North America, is found

in regions about both fresh and salt water. Al- though it can swim and dive readily, its food consists chiefly of grasshoppers, cutworms, grubs, and pests of cultivated lands. The nest, a hollow in the ground, may be along shores or even in cultivated fields far from water; it is built by the united efforts of the pair. (Photo by L. W. Brownell)

6. CHICKS OF WILSON'S PLOVER, These newly hatched chicks were picked up on a sandy beach

and " posed 3} in a shell. (Photo by Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr.)

7. WILSON'S PLOVER AT ITS NEST. (See also No. 6.) Wilson's plover is found in the coastal regions of southern North America and Cen~ tral America. It feeds on the tiny sea creatures that the falling tide leaves strewn along mud flats and sandy beaches. The nest, usually placed above high water on a sandy beach, is a hollowed out place in the sand. The young and eggs blend so with the sand as to be almost unnoticeable. In the one pictured here, note one egg beneath the female, one in front of her, and newly hatched chick behind her. (Photo by S. A. Grimes) 8. KING RAIL ON ITS NEST. The range of this bird is in the central and southern portions of the eastern half of the United States. Its food consists largely of insects of cultivated lands, which it secures from the edges of swampy areas in upla?ids. Rails are found chiefly in grassy marshes. The legs are strong and the wings are weak, and hence when pursued they will run or hide, but will fly only as a last resort.

(Photo by S. A. Grimes)

9. THE COMMON TERN AT ITS NEST. Terns live in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Terns nest in colonies, usually on the open

sand of an island beach. They can be distin- guished from gulls by their more pointed bills, narrower wings, and by their habit of diving or swimming to catch their food, which consists of small fish, aquatic worms, and insects. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)

10. AMERICAN EGRET, GREAT WHITE EGRET. OR WHITE HERON. The summer range of this egret is chiefly from the southern United States south to Patagonia. In late summer it migrates

northward to Maine. Its winter range is Colo- rado, Texas, and South Carolina southward. The egrets and other herons are commonly found about the shores of lakes, rivers, or bays. They usually nest in flocks. Once in danger of extinction, they are now under protection and are increasing in numbers. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)

11. AN AMERICAN BITTEGRN ON THE DEFEN- SIVE. This inhabitant of the marshes ranges in summer across the North American continent from central Canada to the southern United States. In winter it is found from the southern United States to Panama. When approached bitterns fall into a rigid pose which they hold until the intruder retires or frightens them into

flight. The cry of this bird is most arresting and unusual. It is compared to the sound of driving a stake or the sound of a pump in action. Frogs, snakes, small fish, mice, and insects comprise its food. (Photo by S. A. Grimes)

Page 143 (PDF 169)

[Blank or Illustrated Page Scan]

Page 144 (PDF 170)

Fishes

It remains yet unresolved whether the happiness of a man in this world doth con- sist more in contemplation or action. Concerning which two opinions I shall forebear to add a third by declaring my own, and rest myself contented in telling you that both of these meet together, and do most properly belong to the most honest, ingen- ious, quiet and harmless art of angling. And first I tell you what some have observed, and I have found to be a real truth, that the very sitting by the riverside is not only the quietest and the fittest place for contemplation, but will invite an angler to it. — ISAAK WALTON Dear, human, old Isaak Walton discovered that nature-study, fishing, and phi- losophy were akin and as inevitably related as the three angles of a triangle. And yet it is surprising how little the fish have been used as subjects for nature lessons. Every brook and pond is a treasure to the teacher who will find what there is in it and who knows what may be got out of it. Almost any of the fishes found in a brook or pond may be kept in an aquar- ium for a few days of observation in the schoolroom. A large water pail or a bucket does very well if there is no glass aquar- ium. The water in an aquarium should be changed whenever it becomes foul. The practice should be established, once for all, of putting these finny prisoners back into the identical body of water from which they were taken. Much damage has been done by liberating fish in bodies of water where they do not belong. Many fish have cannibalistic traits: black bass, for instance, if they are either the new- comers or the original inhabitants, will be likely to attack and destroy other fish. Besides, even if the new home pro- vides suitable living conditions for the newcomers, they may upset the balance existing among the various forms of plant and animal life already there. SUGGESTED READING — The Book of Fishes, by J. O. LaGorce; Cold-blooded Vertebrates, by Samuel F. Hildebrand, Charles W. Gilmore, and Doris M. Cochran, Vol. 8 of Smithsonian Scientific Se- ries; The Complete Aquarium Book, by W. T. Innes; Field Book of Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan; A History of Fishes, by J. R. Norman; Nature — by Sea- side and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 3, Plants and Animals; Our Great Outdoors: Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes, by C. W. G.

Eifrig; Young Folks' Book of Fishes, by Ida M. Mellen. See also Bibliography.

The Goldfish

Once upon a time, if stories are true, there lived a king called Midas, whose touch turned everything to gold. When- ever I see goldfish, I wonder if, perhaps, King Midas were not a Chinese and if he perchance did not handle some of the lit- tle fish in Orient streams. But common man has learned a magic as wonderful as that of King Midas, although it does not act so immediately, for it is through his agency in selecting and breeding that we have gained these exquisite fish for our aquaria. In the streams of China the goldfish, which were the ancestors of these effulgent creatures, wore safe green colors like the shiners in our brooks; and if any goldfish escape from our fountains and run wild, their progeny return to their

Page 145 (PDF 171)

Fishes

native olive-green color. There are many of such dull-colored goldfish in the lakes and rivers of our country. It is almost in- conceivable that one of the brilliant-colored fishes, if it chanced to escape into our ponds? should escape the fate of being eaten by some larger fish attracted by such glittering bait.

The goldfish, as we see it in the aquarium, is brilliant orange above and pale lemon-yellow below; there are many speci- mens that are adorned with black patches. And as if this fish were bound to imitate the precious metals, there are individuals which are silver instead of gold; they are oxidized silver above and polished silver below. The goldfish are closely related to the carp and can live in waters that are stale. If water plants and scavengers, such as water snails, are kept in the aquarium, the water does not become foul.

The water, then, need not be changed; but unless the aquarium is covered, it will be necessary to add water to replace that which evaporates. Goldfish should not be fed too lavishly. An inch square of one of the sheets of prepared fish food we have found a fair daily ration for five medium sized fish; these fish are more likely to "DorsaT fi Helen F. Hill Fish in a hatchery pond Goldfish with parts named die from overfeeding than from starving.

Goldfish are naturally long-lived; Miss Ada Georgia kept them until seven years old in a school aquarium; and there is on rec- ord one goldfish that lived nine years. Too often the wonderful common things are never noticed because of their commonness; and there is no better in- stance of this than the form and movements of a fish. It is an animal in many ways similar to animals that live on land; but its form and structure are such that it is perfectly adapted to live in water all its life; there are none of the true fishes which live portions of their lives on land as do the frogs. The first peculiarity of the fish is its shape. Looked at from above, the broader part of the body is near the front end, which is rounded or pointed so as to cut the water readily. The long, narrow, hind portion of the body with the tail acts as a propeller in the sense that it pushes the body forward; this movement is not at all similar to the action of an airplane propeller or a ship's screw. Seen from the side, the body is a smooth, graceful oval and this form is especially adapted to move through the water swiftly, as can be demonstrated to the pupil by cutting a model of the fish from wood and trying to move it through the water sidewise.

Normally, the fish has seven fins, one along the back called the dorsal, one at the end of the tail called the tail or caudal fin, one beneath the rear end of the body called the anal? a pair on the lower side

Page 146 (PDF 172)

N. Y. State Conservation Dept.

Large-mouthed black bass Aplites salmoides of the body called the ventrals, and a pair just back of the gill openings called the pectorals. All these fins play their own parts in the movements of the fish. The dorsal fin is usually higher in front than behind and can be lifted or shut down like a fan. This fin when it is lifted gives the fish greater height and it can be twisted to one side or the other and thus be made a factor in steering. The anal fin on the lower side acts in a similar manner. The tail fin is the propeller and sends the body forward by pressing backward on the water, first on one side and then on the other, being used like a scull. The tail fin varies in shape very much in different species. In the goldfish it is fanlike, with a deeply notched hind edge, but in some it is rounded or square. The paired fins correspond anatomically to our arms and legs, the pectorals representing the arms, the ventrals the legs.

Fishes7 eyes have no eyelid but the eye- ball is movable, and this often gives the impression that the fish winks. Fishes are necessarily nearsighted since the lens of the eye has to be spherical in order to see in the water. The sense of smell is located in a little sac to which the nostril leads; the nostrils are small and often partitioned and may be seen on either side of the snout. The nostrils of a fish have no connection whatever with breathing.

The tongue of the fish is very bony or gristly and immovable. Very little sense of taste is developed in it. The shape, number, and position of the teeth vary ac- cording to the food habits of the fish. The commonest teeth are fine, sharp, and short and are arranged in pads, as seen in the bullhead. Some fish have blunt teeth suitable for crushing shells. Some herbivorous fishes have sharp teeth with serrated edges, while those living upon crabs and snails have incisor-like teeth. In some species we find several types of teeth; in others, such as goldfish or minnows in general, the teeth may be entirely absent. The teeth are borne not only on the jaws but also in the roof of the mouth, on the tongue, and in the throat.

The ear of the fish has neither outside form nor opening and is very imperfect in comparison with that of man. Extend- ing along the sides of the body from head to tail is a line of modified scales containing small tubes connecting with nerves; N. Y. State Conservation Dept.

A chain pickerel Esox niger N. Y. State Conservation Dept.

A yellow perch Perca flavescens this is called the lateral line and it is believed that it is in some way connected with the fish's senses, perhaps with the sense of hearing.

The covering of fishes varies: most fish, such as the yellow perch and black bass, are sheathed in an armor of scales; others, such as the bullhead, have only a smooth skin. All fish are covered with a slimy substance which somewhat reduces friction as they swim through the water. In order to understand how the fish breathes we must examine its gills. In front, just above the entrance to the gullet, are several bony ridges which bear two rows of pinkish fringes; these are the gill arches and the fringes are the gills. The

Page 147 (PDF 173)

Fishes

gills are filled with tiny bloodvessels, and as the water passes over them, the impu- rities of the blood pass out through the thin skin of the gills and the life-giving oxygen passes in. Since most fish cannot make use of air unless it is dissolved in water, it is very important that the water in the aquarium provide a sufficient sur- face area to enable the fish to secure air.

The gill arches also bear a series of bony processes called gill-rakers. Their function is to prevent the escape of food through the gills while it is being swallowed, and they vary in size according to the food habits of the fish. We note that the fish in the aquarium constantly opens and closes the mouth; this action draws the water into the throat and forces it out over the gills and through the gill openings; this, then, is the act of breathing. SUGGESTED READING— Goldfish Culture for Amateurs, by A. E. Hodge and Arthur Derham; Goldfish, Their Care in Small Aquaria and Ponds, by E. C. Fearnow (Document 980, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.); The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on page

Lesson 36

A Study Of The Fish

LEADING THOUGHT — A fish lives in the water where it must breathe, move, and find its food. The water world is quite different from the air world and the fish have developed forms, senses, and habits which fit them for life in the water.

METHOD — The goldfish is used as a subject for this lesson because it is so conveniently kept where the children may see it. However, a shiner or other minnow would do as well. Before the pupils begin the study, place the diagram shown on p. 145 on the black- board, with all the parts labeled; thus the pupils will be able to learn the parts of the fish by consulting it? and not be compelled to commit them to memory arbitrarily. It would be well to associate the goldfish with a geography lesson on China.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Where do fish live?

2. What is the shape of a fish when seen from above? Where is the widest part? What is its shape seen from the side? Think if you can in how many ways the shape of the fish is adapted for mov- ing swiftly through the water.

3. How many fins has the fish? Make a sketch of the goldfish with all its fins and name them from the diagram on the blackboard.

4. How many fins are there in all? Four of these fins are in pairs; where are they situated? What are they called? Which pair corresponds to our arms? Which to our legs?

5. Describe the pectoral fins. How are they used? Are they kept constantly mov- ing? Do they move together or alternately? How are they used when the fish swims backward?

6. How are the ventral fins used? How do they assist the fish when swimming?

7. Observe a dorsal fin and an anal fin. How are these used when the fish is swimming?

8. With what fin does the fish push itself through the water? Make a sketch of the tail. Note if it is square, rounded, or notched at the end.

9. Watch the goldfish swim and de- scribe the action of all the fins while it is in motion. In what position are the fins when the fish is at rest?

10. What is the nature of the covering of the fish? Are the scales large or small?

In what direction do they seem to over- lap? Of what use to the fish is this scaly covering?

11. Can you see a line which extends from the upper part of the gill opening, along the side to the tail? This is called the lateral line. Do you think it is of any use to the fish?

12. Note carefully the eyes of the fish.

Describe the pupil and the iris. Are the eyes placed so that the fish can see in all directions? Can they be moved so as to see better in any direction? Does the fish wink? Has it any eyelids? Do you know why fish are nearsighted?

13. Can you see the nostrils? Is there a little wartlike projection connected

Page 148 (PDF 174)

with the nostril? Do you think fishes breathe through their nostrils?

14. Describe the mouth of the fish.

Does it open upward, downward, or di- rectly in front? What sort of teeth have fish? How does the fish catch its prey?

Does the lower or upper jaw move in the process of eating?

15. Is the mouth kept always in mo- tion? Do you think the fish is swallowing water all the time? Do you know why it does this? Can you see a wide opening along the sides of the head behind the gill cover? Does the gill cover move with the movement of the mouth? How does a fish breathe?

16. What are the colors of the goldfish above and below? What would happen to our beautiful goldfish if they were put in a brook with other fish? Why could they not hide? Do you know what happens to the colors of the goldfish when they run wild in our streams and ponds? 17. Can you find in books or cyclo- pedias where the goldfish came from? Are they gold and silver in color in the streams where they are native? Do you think that they had originally the long, slender, swal- low-tails which we see sometimes in gold- fish? How have the beautiful colors and graceful forms of the gold and silver fishes been developed?

I have my world, and so have you, A tiny universe for two, A bubble by the artist blown, Scarcely more fragile than our own, Where you have all a whale could wish, Happy as Eden's primal fish. Manna is dropt you thrice a day From some land heaven not far away, And still you snatch its softening crumbs, Nor, more than we, think whence it comes.

No toil seems yours but to explore Your cloistered realm from shore to shore; Sometimes you trace its limits round, Sometimes its limpid depths you sound, Or hover motionless midway, Lilce gold-red clouds at set of day; Erelong you whirl with sudden whim Ofi to your globe's most distant rim, Where, greatened by the watery lens, Methinlcs no dragon of the fens Flashed huger scales against the sky, Roused by Sir Bevis or Sir Guy; And the one eye that meets my view, Lidless and strangely largening, too, Like that of conscience in the dark, Seems to make me its single mark. What a benignant lot is yours That have an own All-out-of-doors, No words to spell, no sums to do, No Nepos and no parlyvool How happy you, without a thought Of such cross things as Must and Ought — I too the happiest of boys To see and share your golden joys!

— " The Oracle Of The Goldfishes," Lowell

The Bullhead

The bull-head does usually dwell and hide himself in holes or amongst stones in clear water; and in very hot days will lie a long time very still and sun himself and will be easy to be seen on any flat stone or gravel; at which time he will suffer an angler to put a hook baited with a small worm very near into his mouth; and lie never refuses to bite, nor indeed, to be caught with the worst of anglers. — ISAAK WALTON When one looks a bullhead in the face one is glad that it is not a real bull, for its barbels give it an appearance quite fit for the making of a nightmare; and yet from the standpoint of the bullhead, how truly beautiful those fleshy feelers are! For without them how could it feel its way about searching for food in the mud? Two of these barbels stand straight up; the two largest ones stand out on each

Page 149 (PDF 175)

Fishes

Common bullhead Ameiurus nebulosus State of New York Conservation Department side of the mouth, and two pairs of short ones adorn the lower lip, the smallest pair at the middle.

As the fish moves about, it is easy to see that the large barbels at the side of the mouth are of the greatest use; it keeps them in a constantly advancing move- ment, feeling of everything it meets. The upper ones stand straight up, keeping watch for whatever news there may be from above; the two lower ones spread apart and follow rather than precede the fish, seeming to test what lies below. The upper and lower pairs seem to test things as they are, while the large side pair deal with what is going to be. The broad mouth seems to be formed for taking in all things eatable, for the bullhead lives on almost anything alive or dead that it discovers as it noses about in the mud.

Nevertheless, it has its notions about its food, for I have repeatedly seen one draw material into its mouth through its breath- ing motion and then spew it out with a vehemence one would hardly expect from such a phlegmatic fish.

Although it has feelers which are very efficient, it also has perfectly good eyes which it uses to excellent purpose; note how promptly it moves to the other side of the aquarium when we are trying to study it. The eyes are not large; the pupils are black and oval and are rimmed with a narrow band of shiny pale yellow. The eyes are prominent so that when moved backward and forward they gain a view of the enemy in the rear or at the front while the head is motionless. It seems strange to see such a pair of pale yellow, almost white eyes in such a dark body.

The general shape of the front part of the body is flat, in fact, it is shaped decidedly like a tadpole; this shape is espe- cially fitted for groping about muddy bottoms. The flat effect of the body is emphasized by the gill covers opening below rather than at the sides, every pulsation widening the broad neck. The pectoral fins also open out on the same plane as the body, although they can be turned at an angle if necessary; they are thick and fleshy and the sharp tips of their spines offer punishment to whosoever touches them. The dorsal fin is far forward and not large; it is usually raised at a threat- ening angle.

Near the tail there is a little fleshy dor- sal fin which stands in line with the body, and one wonders what is its special use, The ventral fins are small. The anal fin is far back and rather strong, and this with

Page 150 (PDF 176)

150 Animals

the long? strong tail gives the fish good motor power; it can swim very rapidly if occasion requires. The bullhead is mud-colored and has no scales. The skin is very thick and leath- ery so that it is always removed before the fish is cooked. The bullhead burrows deep into the mud in the fall and remains there all winter; when the spring freshets come, it emerges and is hungry for fresh meat.

Bullhead guarding his nest The family life of the bullheads and other catfishes seems to be quite ideal. Dr. Theodore Gill tells us that bullheads make their nests by removing stones and gravel from a more or less irregularly circu- lar area in shallow water, and on sandy or gravelly ground. The nest is somewhat excavated, both parents removing the peb- bles by sucking them into the mouth and carrying them off for some distance. After the eggs are laid, the male watches over and guards the nest and seems to have great family responsibilities. He is the more active of the two in stirring and mix- ing^ the young fry after they are hatched. Smith and Harron describe the process thus: "With their chins on the bottom, the old fish brush the corners where the fry were banked, and with the barbels all directed forward, and flexed where they touch the bottom, thoroughly agitate the mass of fry, bringing the deepest individu- als to the surface. This act is usually re- peated several times in quick succession.

" The nests are usually made beneath logs or other protecting objects and in shallow water. The paternal care is con- tinued for many days after the birth of the young. At first these may be crowded to- gether in a dense mass, but as time passes they disperse more and more and spread around the father. Frequently, especially when the old one is feeding, some — one or more — of the young are taken into the mouth, but they are instinctively sepa- rated from the food and spit out. At last the young swarm venture farther from their birthplace, or perhaps they are led away by their parents/' SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explora- tion, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen; also, readings on page 144.

Lesson 37

The Bullhead, Or Horned Pout

LEADING THOUGHT — The bullhead lives in mud bottoms of streams and ponds and is particularly adapted for life in such locations.

METHOD — A small bullhead may be placed in a small aquarium jar. At first let the water be clear and add a little pond weed so as to observe the natural tendency of the fish to hide. Later add mud and gravel to the aquarium and note the be- havior of the fish.

OBSERVATIONS — i. What at the first

glance distinguishes the bullhead from other fish? Describe these strange " whis- kers" growing about the mouth; how many are there and where are they situ- ated? Which are the longest pair? Can the fish move them in any direction at will? 2. Where do we find bullheads? On what do they feed? Would their eyes help them to find their food in the mud? How do they find it?

3. Explain, if you can, why the bull- head has barbels, or feelers, while the trout and bass have none.

4. What is the shape of the mouth?

Page 151 (PDF 177)

Fishes 151

5. What is the general shape of the body? What is its color? Has it any scales?

6. Why should the bullhead be so flat horizontally while the sunfish is so flat in the opposite direction?

7. Describe the bullhead's eyes. Are they large? What is their color? Where are they placed?

8. Describe the dorsal fin? giving its comparative size and position. Do you see another dorsal fin? Where is this peculiar fin and how does it differ from all of the others?

9. Describe the tail fin. Does it seem long and strong? Is the bullhead a good swimmer?

10. Is the anal fin large or small as compared with that of the goldfish?

11. How do the pectoral fins move as compared with those of the sunfish? Why is the position of the pectoral and dorsal fins of benefit to this fish?

12. How does the bullhead inflict wounds when it is handled? Tell how these spines may protect it from its natural enemies.

13. When is the best season for fishing for bullheads? Does the place where they are found affect the flavor of their flesh?

Why?

14. What is the spawning season? Do you know about the nests the bullheads build and the care they give their young?

15. Write an essay on the nest-making habits of the bullheads and the care given the young by the parents.

And what fish will the natural boy naturally talce? In America, there is but one fish which enters fully into the spirit of the occasion. It is a fish of many species according to the part of the country, and of as many sizes as there are sizes of boys.

This fish is the horned pout, and all the rest of the species of Ameiums. Horned pout is its Boston name. Bullhead is good enough for New York; and foi the rest of the country, big and little, all the fishes of this tribe are called catfish. A catfish is a jolly blundering sort of a fish, a regular Falstaff of the ponds. It has a fat /owl, and a fat belly, which it is always trying to fill. Smooth and sleek, its skin is almost human in its delicacy. It wears a long mustache, with scattering whiskers of other sort. Meanwhile it always goes armed with a sword, three swords, and these it has always on hand, always ready for a struggle on land as well as in the water. The small boy often gets badly stuck on these poisoned daggers, but, as the fish knows how to set them by a muscular twist, the small boy learns how, by a like untwist, he may unset and leave them harmless.

The catfish lives in sluggish waters. It loves the millpond best of all, and it has no foolish dread of hooks when it goes forth to bite. Its mouth is wide. It swallows the hook, and very soon it is in the air, its white throat gasping in the untried element. Soon it joins its fellows on the forked stick, and even then, uncomfortable as it may find its new relations, it never loses sight of the humor of the occasion. Its large head and expansive fore- head betoken a large mind. It is the only fish whose brain contains a Sylvian fissure, a piling up of /issue consequent on the abundance of gray matter. So it under- stands and makes no complaint. After it has dried in the sun for an hour, pour a little water over its gills, and it will wag its tail, and squeak with gratitude. And the best of all is, there are horned pouts enough to go around.

The female horned pout lays thousands of eggs, and when these hatch, she goes about near the shore with her school of little fishes, like a hen with myriad chicks.

She should be respected and let alone, for on her success in rearing this breed of " bullying little rangers " depends the sport of the small boy of the future.

— " FISH STORIES," CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER AND DAVID STARR JORDAN

Page 152 (PDF 178)

State of New York Conservation Department The common sucker Catostomus commersonnii

The Common Sucker

He who loves to peer down into the depths of still waters, often sees upon the sandy, muddy, or rocky bottom several long, wedge-shaped sticks lying at various angles one to another. But if he thrust down a real stick, behold, these inert, water-logged sticks move off deftly! And then he knows that they are suckers. He may drop a hook baited with a worm in front of the nose of one, and if he waits long enough before he pulls up he may catch this fish, not by its gills but by the pit of its stomach; for it not only swallows the hook completely but tries to digest it dong with the worm. Its food is made up of soft-bodied insects and other small water creatures; it is also a mud eater and manages to make a digestive selection from the organic material of silt. For this latter reason it is not a desirable food fish, although its flesh varies in flavor with the locality where it is found. The suckers taken when the waters are cold, are tasty but somewhat more bony than most fishes, while those taken from warm waters are very inferior in flavor and often unpalat- able.

Seen from above, the sucker is wedge- shaped, being widest at the eyes; seen from the side it has a flat lower surface and an ungracefully rounded contour above, which tapers only slightly toward the tail.

The profile of the face gives the impres- sion of a Roman nose. The young specimens have an irregular scale-mosaic pat- tern of olive-green blotches on a paler ground color, while the old ones are quite brown above and on the sides. The suckers differ from most other fishes in having the markings of the back extend down the sides almost to the belly. This is a help in concealing the fish, since its sides show from above quite as distinctly as its back because of its peculiar form. The scales are rather large and are noticeably larger behind than in the region of the head. Like other fish it is white below.

The dorsal fin is placed about midway the length of the fish as measured from nose to tail. The tail is long and strong and deeply notched; the anal fin extends back to where the tail begins. The ventral fins are small and are directly opposite the hind half of the dorsal fin. The pectorals are not large but are strong and are placed low down. The sucker has not a lavish equipment of fins, but its tail is strong and it can swim swiftly; it is also very ex- citable; in its efforts to escape, it will jump from the aquarium more successfully than any other fish. When resting on the bottom, it is supported by its extended pec- toral and ventral fins, which are strong al- though not large.

Page 153 (PDF 179)

Fishes

L53

The eyes are fairly large but the iris is not shiny; they are placed so that the fish can easily see above it as well as at the sides; the eyes move so as to look up or down and are very well adapted to serve a fish that lives upon the bottom. The nostrils are divided, the partition project- ing until it seems a tubercle on the face.

The mouth opens below and looks like the puckered opening of a bag. The lips are thick but are very sensitive; it is by projecting these lips, in a way that reminds one of a very short elephant's trunk, that it is enabled to reach and find its food in the mud or gravel; so although the sucker's mouth is not a beauti- ful feature, it is doubly useful. The sucker has the habit of remaining motionless for long periods of time. It breathes very slowly and appears sluggish; it never seizes its food with any spirit but simply slowly engulfs it; and for this reason it is consid- ered poor game. It is only in the spring when they may be speared through the ice that there is any fun in catching suckers; it is at this season of the year that they move upstream to shallow riffles to spawn. Even so lowly a creature as the sucker seems to respond to influences of the springtime, for at that period the male has a faint rosy stripe along his sides. In the winter these fish retire to the depths of the rivers or ponds.

There are many species of suckers and they vary in size from six inches to three feet in length. They inhabit all sorts of waters, but they do not like a strong cur- rent and are, therefore, found in still pools. The common sucker (Catostomus commersonii), which is the subject of this lesson, sometimes attains the length of twenty-two inches and the weight of five pounds. The ones under observation were about eight inches long, and proved to be the acrobats of the aquarium, since they were likely at any moment to jump out; several times I found one on the floor.

SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Exploration, by Paul G. Howes; also, read- ings on page 144.

Lesson 38

The Common Sucker

LEADING THOUGHT — The sucker is especially adapted by shape for lying on the bottom of ponds under still water wheie its food is abundant.

METHOD — If still-water pools along rivers or lakesides are accessible, it is far more interesting to study a sucker in its native haunts, as an introduction to the study of its form and colors when it is in the aquarium.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where do you find suckers? How do you catch them? Do

they natural take food the of hook' the sucker? quickly? What is the 2. What is the shape of this fish's body when seen from above? From the side?

What is the color above? On the sides? Below? Does the sucker differ from most other fishes in the coloring along its sides? What is the reason for this? What do suckers look like on the bottom of the pond? Are they easily seen? 3. Describe or sketch a sucker, showing the position, size, and shape of the fins and tail. Are its scales large or small? How- does it use its fins when at rest? When moving? Is it a strong swimmer? Is it a high jumper?

4. Describe the eyes; how are they especially adapted in position and in move- ment to the needs of a fish that lives on the bottom of streams and ponds?

5. Note the nostrils. Are they used for breathing?

6. Where is the mouth of the sucker situated? What is its form? How is it adapted to get food from the bottom of the stream and from crevices in the rocks?

7. Tell all you know about the habits of the suckers. When do you see them first in the spring? Where do they spend the winter? Where do they go to spawn? How large is the largest one you have ever seen? Why is their flesh sometimes con- sidered poor in quality as food? Is there a difference in the flavor of their flesh depending upon the temperature of the water in which they live?

Page 154 (PDF 180)

State of New York Conservation Department Common shiner or redfin Notropis cornutus

The Shiner

This is a. noteworthy and characteristic lineament, or cipher? or hieroglyphic, or type of spring. You look into some clear, sandy bottomed brook where it spreads into a deeper bay, yet flowing cold from ice and snow not far off, and see indistinctly poised over the sand on invisible fins, the outlines of the shiner, scarcely to be distinguished from the sands behind it as if it were transparent. — THOREAXJ There are many species of shiners and it is by no means easy to recognize them or to distinguish them from chub, dace, and other minnows, since all these belong to one family; they all have the same ar- rangement of fins and live in the same water; and the plan of this lesson can with few changes be applied to any of them.

Never were seen more exquisite colors than shimmer along the sides of the com- mon shiner (Notropis cornutus) . It is pale olive-green above, just a sunny brook- color; this is bordered at the sides by a line of iridescent blue-purple, while the shin- ing silver scales on the sides below flash and glimmer with the changing hues of the rainbow. Most of the other minnows are darker than the shiners.

The body of the shiner is ideal for slip- ping through the water. Seen from above it is a narrow wedge, rounded in front and tapering to a point behind; from the side, it is long, oval, lance-shaped. The scales are large and beautiful, and the lateral line looks like a series of dots embroidered at the center of the diamond-shaped scales.

The dorsal fin is placed just back of the center of the body and is not very large; it is composed of soft rays, the first two being stiff and unbranched. The tail is long, large, graceful and deeply notched. The anal fin is almost as large as the dor- sal. The ventral pair is placed on the lower side, opposite the dorsal fin; the pectorals are set at the lower margin of the body, just behind the gill openings. The shiner and its relatives use the pectoral fins to aid in swimming, and keep them constantly in motion when moving through the water. The ventrals are moved only now and then and evidently help in keep- ing the balance. When the fish moves rapidly forward, the dorsal fin is raised so that its front edge stands at right angles to the body and the ventral and anal fins are expanded to their fullest extent. But when the fish is lounging, the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins are more or less closed, although the tip of the dorsal fin swings with every movement of the fish.

The eyes are large, the pupils being very large and black; the iris is pale yellow

Page 155 (PDF 181)

Fishes

and shining; the whole eye is capable of 4. Describe or sketch the fish, showing much movement forward and back. The nostril is divided by a little projecting par- tition which looks like a tubercle. The mouth is at the front of the head; to see the capabilities of this mouth, watch the shiner yawn, if the water of the aquarium becomes stale. Poor fellow! He yawns just as we do in the effort to get more oxygen.

The shiners are essentially brook fish although they may be found in larger bodies of water. They lead a precarious existence, for the larger fish eat them in all their stages. They hold their own only by laying countless numbers of eggs. They feed chiefly on water insects, algse, and fish eggs, including their own. They are pretty and graceful little creatures and may be seen swimming up the current in the middle of the brook. They often oc- cur in schools or flocks, especially when young.

SUGGESTED READING — BacJcyard Ex- ploration, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock; also, read- ings on page 144.

Lesson 39

The Shiner

LEADING THOUGHT — The shiners are among the most common of the little fish in our small streams. They are beautiful in form and play an important part in the life of our streams.

METHOD — Place in the aquarium shin- ers and as many as possible of the other species of small fish found in our creeks and brooks. The aquarium should stand where the pupils may see it often. The following questions may be asked, giving the children time for the work of observation.

OBSERVATIONS — i . What is the shape

of the shiner's body when seen from above? When seen from the side? Do you think that its shape fits it for moving rap- idly through the water?

2. What is the coloring above? On the sides? Below?

3. Are the scales large and distinct, or very small? Can you see the lateral line?

Where are the tiny holes which make this line placed in the scales?

position, relative size, and shape of all the fins and the tail.

5. Describe the use and movements of each of the fins when the fish is swim- ming.

6. Describe the eyes. Do they move?

7. Describe the nostrils. Do you think each one is double?

8. Does the mouth open upward, down- ward, or forward? Have you ever seen the shiner yawn? Why does it yawn? Why do you yawn? 9. Where do you find the shiners liv- ing? Do they haunt the middle of the stream or the edges? Do you ever see them in flocks or schools?

Minnows

How silent comes the water round that bend; Not the minutest whisper does it send To the o'er-hanging sallows; blades of grass Slowly across the chequered shadows pass, Why, you might read two sonnets, ere they reach To where the hurrying freshnesses aye preach A natural sermon o'er their pebbly beds; Where swarms of minnows show their lit- tle heads, Staying their wavy bodies 'gainst the streams, To taste the luxury of sunny beams Tempered with coolness. How they ever wrestle With their own sweet delight, and ever nestle Their silver bellies on the pebbly sand/ If you but scantily hold out the hand, That very instant not one will remain; But turn your eye, and there they are The again. ripples cresses, seem right glad to reach those And cool themselves among the em'rald tresses; The while they cool themselves, they freshness give, And moisture, that the bowery green may live.

— John Keats

Page 156 (PDF 182)

i56 ANIMALS State of New York Conservation Department The brook trout Salvelinus f ontinalis

The Brook Trout

Up and down the brook I ran, where beneath the banks so steep, Lie the spotted trout asleep. — WHITTIER But they were probably not asleep, as Mr. Whittier might have observed if he had cast a fly near one of them. There is in the very haunts of the trout a suggestion of where it gets its vigor and wariness : the cold, clear streams where the water is pure; brooks that wind in and out over rocky and pebbly beds, here shaded by trees and there dashing through the open — it makes us feel vigorous even to think of such streams. Under the overhanging bank or in the shade of some fallen log or shelving rock, the brook trout hides where he may see all that goes on in the world above and around him without being himself seen. Woe to the unfortunate insect that falls upon the surface of the water in his vicinity or even flies low over it, for the trout will easily jump far out of the water to seize its prey It is this habit of taking the insect upon and above the water's surface which has made trout fly-fishing the sport that it is. Man's ingenuity is fairly matched against the trout's cunning in this contest. I know of one old trout that has kept fishermen in the region around on the qui vive for years; and up to date he is still alive, making a dash now and then at a tempting bait, showing himself enough to tantalize his would-be captors with his splendid size, but always retiring at the sight of the line.

The brook trout varies much in color, depending upon the soil and the rocks of the streams in which it lives. Its back is marbled with dark olive or black, making it just the color of shaded water. This marbled coloration also marks the dorsal and the tail fins. The sides, which vary much in color, are marked with beautiful vermilion spots, each placed in the center of a larger, bluish spot. In some instances the lower surface is reddish, in others whitish. All the fins on the lower side of the body have the front edges creamy or yellowish white, with a darker streak behind.

The trout's head is quite large and somewhat blunt. The large eye is a little in front of the middle of the head. The dorsal fin is at about the middle of the body, and when raised is squarish in out- line. Behind the dorsal fin and near the tail is the little, fleshy adipose fin, so called because its tissue is more or less adipose in nature. The tail is fan-shaped, slightly notched at the end and is large and strong.

Page 157 (PDF 183)

Fishes

The anal fin is rather Iarge? being shaped much like the dorsal fin, only slightly smaller. The ventral fins are directly be- low the dorsal fin and a little behind its middle. The pectorals are low down, being below and just behind the gill arches.

In size the brook trout may reach fourteen inches, but the majority of those caught are seldom longer than seven or eight inches. It does not flourish in water which is warmer than 70° Fahrenheit, and prefers a temperature of about 50° Fahrenheit. It must have the pure water of mountain streams and cannot endure the water of rivers which is polluted by mills or the refuse of cities. Where it has access to streams that flow into the ocean, it forms the salt-water habit, going out to sea and remaining there during the winter. Such specimens become very large.

The trout can lay eggs when about six inches in length. The eggs are laid from September until late November in most parts of the United States. One small mother trout lays from 400 to 600 eggs, but the large-sized ones lay more. The period of hatching depends upon the tem- perature of the water. In depositing their eggs the trout seek water with a gravelly bottom, often where some spring enters into a stream. The nest is shaped by the tail of the fish, the larger stones being carried away in the mouth. To make the preVerne Morton When resting on a stream bed trout face into the current Where the trout live cious eggs secure they are covered with gravel. Strict laws have been enacted by almost all of our states to protect the brook trout and preserve it in our streams. While it is true that brook trout spawn when five to six inches in length, the legal size in most states is six to seven inches; this gives them a chance to spawn at least about once before being caught. It is the duty of every decent citizen to abide by these laws and to see to it that his neighbors observe them. The teacher cannot emphasize enough to the child the moral value of being law-abiding. There should be in every school in the Union children's clubs which should have for their pur- pose civic honesty and the enforcement of laws which affect the city, village, or township.

Almost any stream with suitable water may be stocked with trout from the na- tional or the state hatcheries, but what is the use of this expense if the game laws are not observed and these fish are caught before they reach maturity, as is so often the case?

SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explora-

Page 158 (PDF 184)

i58 ANIMALS tion, by Paul G. Howes; Mountain Neigh- bors, by Edith M. Patch and Carroll L. Fenton (Rainbow Trout) ; The Watchers of the Trails, by Charles G. D. Roberts; also, readings on page 144.

Lesson 40

The Brook Trout

LEADING THOUGHT — The brook trout have been exterminated in many streams in our country largely because the game laws were passed too late to save them; and because of misuse of our waters. The trout is one of the most cunning and beau- tiful of our common fishes and the most delicious for food. Many mountain streams in our country could be well stocked with brook trout.

METHOD — For this lesson secure a trout from a fisherman at the opening of trout season. In some states, a permit is required before a trout may be legally kept in captivity, unless it is a legally captured specimen and is kept only during fishing season.

OBSERVATIONS — i. In what streams are the brook trout found? Must the water be

warm or cold? Can the trout live in impure water? Can it live in salt water? 2. Do the trout swim about in schools or do they live solitary? Where do they like to hide?

3. With what kind of bait are trout caught? Why do they afford such excel- lent sport for fly-fishing? Can you tell what the food of the trout is?

4. What is the color of the trout above?

What colors along its sides? What mark- ings make the fish so beautiful? What is its color below? Has the trout scales? Do you see the lateral line?

5. What is the general shape of the brook trout? Describe the shape, position, and color of the dorsal fin. Describe the little fin behind the dorsal. Why is it un- like the other fins? What is the shape of the tail fin? Is it rounded, square, or cres- cent-shaped across the end? What is the position and size of the anal fin compared with the dorsal? What are the colors on the ventral fins and where are these fins placed in relation to the dorsal fin? What color are the pectoral fins and how are they placed in relation to the gill arches?

6. Describe the trout's eyes. Do you think the trout is keen-sighted? 7. When and where are the eggs laid? Describe how the nest is made. How are the eggs covered and protected? 8. Could a trout live in the streams of your neighborhood? Can you get state aid in stocking the streams? 9. What are the game laws concerning trout fishing? When is the open season?

How long must the trout be to be taken legally? If you are a good citizen what do you do about the game laws? 10. Write a story telling all you know about the wariness, cunning, and strength of the brook trout.

Trout

It is well for anglers not to make trout, of all fishes, the prime objective of a day's sport, as no more uncertain game loves the sunlight. Today he is yours for the very asking; tomorrow, the most luscious lure will not tempt him. One hour he defies you, the next, gazes at you from some en- sconcement of the fishes, and knows you not, as you pass him, casting, by. I believe I accumulated some of this angling wisdom years ago, in a certain trout domain in New England, where there were streams and pools, ripples, cascades and drooping trees; where every- thing was fair and promising to the eyes for trout; but it required superhuman pa- tience to lure them, and many a day I scoreda blank. Yet on these very days when lures were unavailing, the creel empty save for fern leaves, I found they were not for naught; that the real fishing day was a composite of the weather, the wind, even if it was from the east, the splendid colors of forest trees, the blue tourmaline of the sky that topped the stream amid the trees, the flecks of cloud mirrored on the surface. The delight of anticipation, the casting, the play of the rod, the exer- cise of skill, the quick turns in the stream opening up new vistas, the little openings in the forest, through which were seen dis-

Page 159 (PDF 185)

Fishes

tant meadows and nodding flowers — all these went to make up the real trout fishing, the actual catch being but an incident among many delights.

Just how long one could be content with mere scenery in lieu of trout, I am not prepared to say; if pushed to the wall, I confess that when fishing I prefer trout to scenic effects. Still, it is a very imprac- ticable and delightful sentiment with some truth to it, the moral being that the angler should be resourceful, and not be entirely cast down on the days when the wind is in the east.

I am aware that this method of angling is not in vogue with some, and would be deemed fanciful, indeed inane, by many more; yet it is based upon a true and homely philosophy, not of today, the phi- losophy of patience and contentment.

" How poor are they that have not pa- tience/7 said Othello. It is well to be con- tent with things as we find them, and it is well to go a-fishing, and not to catch fish alone, but every offering the day has to give. This should be an easy matter for the angler, as Walton tells us that Angling is somewhat like poetry; men are to be born so.

— " Fish Stories/' Holder And Jordan

j State of New York Conservation Department Brook stickleback and nest Eucalia inconstans

The Stickleback

This is certainly the most sagacious of the Lilliputian vertebrates; scarcely more than an inch in length when full-grown, it gazes at you with large, keen, shining- rimmed eyes, takes your measure and darts off with a flirt of the tail that says plainly, " Catch me if you can/' The sticklebacks are delightful aquarium pets because their natural home is in still water sufficiently stagnant for algae to grow luxuriously; thus we but seldom need to change the water in the aquarium, which, however, should be well stocked with water plants and have gravel at the bottom.

Page 160 (PDF 186)

i6o ANIMALS When the stickleback is not resting, he is always going somewhere and he knows just where he is going and what he is going to do, and earthquakes shall not deter him. He is the most dynamic creature in all creation, I think, except perhaps the dragon fly, and he is so ferocious that if he were as large as a shark he would destroy all other fishes. His ferocity is fright- ful to behold as he seizes his prey and shakes it as a terrier does a rat.

Well is this fish named stickleback, for along the ridge of its back are sharp, strong spines — five of them in our tiny brook species. These spines may be laid back flat or they may be erected stiffly, making an efficient saw which does great damage to fish many times larger than the stickle- back. When we find the minnows in the aquarium losing their scales, we may be sure they are being raked off by this saw- back; and if the shiner or sunfish under- takes to make a stickleback meal, there is only one way to do it, and that is to catch the quarry by the tail, since he is too alert to be caught in any other way. But swal- lowing a stickleback tail first is a danger- ous performance, for the sharp spines rip open the throat or stomach of the captor.

Dr. Jordan says that the sticklebacks of the Puget Sound region are called " sal- mon killers " and that they well earn the name; these fierce midgets unhesitatingly attack the salmon, biting off pieces of their fins and also destroying their spawn. As seen from the side, the stickleback is slender and graceful, pointed like an arrow at the front end, and with the body behind the dorsal fin forming a long and slender pedicel to support the beautifully rounded tail fin. The dorsal fin is placed well back and is triangular in shape; the anal fin makes a similar triangle opposite it below and has a sharp spine at its front edge. The color of the body varies with the light; when the stickleback is floating among the water weeds, the back is green- ish mottled with paler green, but when the fish is down on the gravel, it is much darker. The lateral line is marked by a silver stripe.

If large eyes count for beauty, then the stickleback deserves " the apple," for its eyes are not only large but gemlike, with a broad iris of golden brown around the black pupil. I am convinced that the stickleback has a keener vision than most fish; it can move its eyes backward and forward rapidly and alertly. The mouth opens almost upward and is a wicked little mouth, in both appearance and action.

When swimming, the stickleback darts about rapidly, its dorsal and anal fins ex- tended, its spines all abristle, and its tail lashing the water with strong strokes. When the fish wishes to lift itself through the water, it seems to depend entirely upon its pectoral fins and these are also used for balancing. Its favorite position is hanging motionless among the pond weeds, with the tail and the dorsal and ventral fins partially closed; it usually rests upon the pectoral fins which are braced against some stem; in one case I saw the ventrals and pectorals used together to clasp a stem and hold the fish in place. In moving backward the pectorals do the work, with a little beckoning motion of the tail occasionally. When resting upon the bottom of the aquarium, it closes its fins and makes itself quite inconspicuous.

It can dig with much power, accomplishing this by a comical auger-like motion; it plunges head first into the gravel and then, by twisting the body and tail around and around, it soon forms a hiding place. But it is as house builder and father and home protector that the stickleback shines. In the early spring he builds him a nest made from the fine green algas called frog-spittle. This would seem too delicate a material for the house construction, but he is a clever builder. He fastens his filmy walls to some sterns of reed or grass, using as a platform a supporting stem; the ones which I have especially studied were fas- tened to grass stems. The stickleback has a little cement plant of his own, supposed to be situated in the kidneys, which at this time of year secretes the glue for building purposes. The glue is waterproof. It is spun out in fine threads or in filmy masses through an opening near the anal fin. One

Page 161 (PDF 187)

Fishes 161

species weights his platform with sand which he scoops up from the bottom, but I cannot detect that our brook stickleback does this. In his case, home is his sphere literally, for he builds a spherical house about the size of a glass marble, threequarters of an inch in diameter. It is a hollow sphere; he cements the inside walls so as to hold them back and give room, and he finishes his pretty structure with a circular door at the side. When finished, the nest is like a bubble made of threads of down, and yet it holds to- gether strongly.

In the case of the best-known species, the male, as soon as he has finished his bower to his satisfaction, goes a-wooing; he selects some lady stickleback, and in his own way tells her of the beautiful nest he has made and convinces her of his ability to take care of a family. He certainly has fetching ways, for he soon conducts her to his home. She enters the nest through the little circular door, lays her eggs within it, and then, being a flighty creature, she sheds responsibilities and flits off carefree. He follows her into the nest, scatters the fertilizing milt over the eggs, and then starts off again and rolls his golden eyes on some other lady stickleback and invites her also to his home. She comes without any jealousy because she was not first choice; she also enters the nest and lays her eggs and then swims off uncon- cernedly. Again he enters the nest and drops more milt upon the eggs and then fares forth again, a still energetic wooer.

If there was ever a justified polygamist, he is one, since it is only the cares and respon- sibilities of the home that he desires. He only stops wooing when his nest holds as many eggs as he feels equal to caring for.

He now stands on guard by the door, and with his winnowing pectoral fins sets up a current of water over the eggs; he drives off all intruders with the most vicious attacks, and keeps off many an enemy simply by a display of reckless fury; thus he stands guard until the eggs hatch and the tiny little sticklebacks come out of the nest and float off, attaching themselves by their mouths to the pond weeds until they become strong enough to scurry around in the water.

Some species arrange two cloors in this spherical nest so that a current of water can flow through and over the eggs. Mr.

Eugene Barker, who has made a special study of the little brook sticklebacks of the Cayuga Basin, has failed to find more than one door to their nests. Mr. Barker made a most interesting observation on this stickleback's obsession for fatherhood. He placed in the aquarium two nests, one of which was still guarded by its loyal builder, who allowed himself to be caught N. Y. State Conservation Dept.

Horned dace Semotilus atromaculatus rather than desert his post; the little guardian soon discovered the unprotected nest and began to move the eggs from it to his own, carrying them carefully in his mouth. This addition made his own nest so full that the eggs persistently crowded out of the door, and he spent much of his time nudging them back with his snout. We saw this stickleback fill his mouth with algae from the bottom of the aquar- ium and holding himself steady a short distance away, apparently blow the algae at the nest from a distance of half an inch; we wondered if this was his method of laying on his building materials before he cemented them.

The eggs of this species are white and shining like minute pearls, and seem to be fastened together in small packages with gelatinous matter. The mating habits of this species have not been thoroughly studied; therefore, here is an opportunity for investigation on the part of the boys and girls. The habits of other species of sticklebacks have been studied more than have those of the brook stickleback.

SUGGESTED READING — Pathways in Science, by G. S. Craig and Co-authors,

Page 162 (PDF 188)

162 Animals

Book 3, Our Wide, Wide World; The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Ei- nar A. Hansen; also, readings on page 144.

N. Y. State Conservation Dept.

A sculpin Cottus cognatus

Lesson 41

The Stickleback

LEADING THOUGHT — The stickleback is the smallest of our common fish. It lives in stagnant water. The father stickleback builds his pretty nest of algas and watches it very carefully.

METHOD — To find sticklebacks go to a pond of stagnant water which does not dry up during the year. If it is partly shaded by bushes, so much the better. Take a dip net and dip deeply; carefully examine all the little fish in the net by putting them in a Mason jar of water so that you can see what they are like. The stickleback is easily distinguished by the five spines along its back. If you collect these fish as early as the first of May and place several of them in the aquarium with plenty of the algas known as frog- spittle and other water plants they may perhaps build a nest for you. They may be fed upon bits of meat or liver chopped very fine or upon earthworms cut into small sections.

OBSERVATIONS — i. How did the stickleback gets its name? How many spines has it? Where are they situated? Are they

always carried erect? How are these spines used as weapons? How do they act as a means of protection to the stickleback? 2. Describe or make a sketch showing the shape and position of the dorsal, the anal, the ventral, and the pectoral fins. What is the shape of the tail? What is the general shape of the fish?

3. What is the color of the stickle- backs? Is the color always the same? What is the color and position of the lateral line? 4. Describe the eyes. Are they large or small? Can they be moved? Do you think they can see far? 5. Describe the mouth. Does it open upward, straight ahead, or downward? 6. When the stickleback is swimming, what are the positions and motions of the dorsal, anal, tail, and pectoral fins? Can you see the ventral pair? Are they ex- tended when the fish is swimming?

7. When resting among the pond weed of the aquarium what fins does the stick- leback use for keeping afloat? How are the other fins held? What fins does it use to move backward? Which ones are used when it lifts itself from the bottom to the top of the aquarium? How are its fins placed when it is at rest on the bottom? 8. Drop a piece of earthworm or some liver or fresh meat cut finely into the aquarium and describe the action of the sticklebacks as they eat it. How large is a full-grown stickleback? 9. In what kind of ponds do we find sticklebacks? Do you know how the stick- leback nest looks? Of what is it built?

How is it supported? Is there one door or two? Does the father or mother stickle- back build the nest? Are the young in the nest cared for? At what time is the nest built?

The Sunfish

This little disc of gay color has won many popular names. It is called pump- kinseed, tobacco box, and sunfish because of its shape, and it is also called bream and pondfish. I have always wondered that it was not called chieftain also, for when it raises its dorsal fin with its saw crest of spines, it looks like the headdress of an Indian chief; and surely no warrior ever had a greater enjoyment in a battle than does this indomitable little fish.

The sunfish lives in the eddies of our

Page 163 (PDF 189)

Fishes

State of New York Conservation Department Sunfish or pumpkinseed Eupomotis gibbosus clear brooks and ponds. It is a near rela- tive of the rock bass and also of the black bass and it has, according to its size, just as gamy qualities as the latter. I once had a sunfish on my line which made rne think I had caught a bass and I do not know whether I or the mad little pumpkinseed was the more disgusted when I discovered the truth. I threw him back in the water, but his fighting spirit was up and he grabbed my hook again within five min- utes, which showed that he had more courage than wisdom; it would have served him right if I had fried him in a pan, but I never could make up my mind to kill a fish for the sake of one mouthful of food.

Perhaps of all its names, ''pumpkinseed " is the most graphic, for it resembles this seed in the outlines of its body when seen from the side. Looked at from above, it has the shape of a powerful craft with smooth, rounded nose and gently swelling and tapering sides; it is widest at the eyes and this is a canny arrangement, for these great eyes turn alertly in every direction; and thus placed they are able to discern the enemy or the dinner coming from any quarter. The dorsal fin is a most militant looking organ. It consists of ten spines, the hind one closely joined to the hind dorsal fin, which is supported by the soft rays. The three front spines rise successively, one above another, and all are united by the membrane, the upper edge of which is deeply toothed. The hind dorsal fin is gracefully rounded and the front and hind fin work independently of each other, the latter often winnowing the water when the former is laid flat. The tail is strong and has a notch in the end; the anal fin has three spines on its front edge and ten soft rays. Each ventral fin also has a spine at the front edge and is placed below and slightly behind the pectorals. The pecto- ral fins, I have often thought, are the most exquisite and gauzelike in texture of all the fins I have ever seen; they are kept al- most constantly in motion and move in such graceful flowing undulations that it is a joy to look at them.

Page 164 (PDF 190)

The eye of the sunfish is very large and quite prominent; the large black pupil is surrounded by an iris that has shining lavender and bronze in it, but is more or less clouded above; the young ones have a pale silver iris. The eyes move in every direction and are eager and alert in their expression. The mouth is at the front of the body but it opens upward. The gill opening is prolonged backward at the up- per corner, making an earlike flap; this, of course, has nothing to do with the fish's ears, but it is highly ornamental, as it is Male sunfish guarding his nest greenish-black in color, bordered by irides- cent, pale green, with a brilliant orange spot on its hind edge. The colors of the sunfish are too varied for description and too beautiful to reduce to mere words.

There are dark, dull, greenish or purplish cross-bands worked out in patterns of scale-mosaic, and between them are bands of pale, iridescent green, set with black- edged orange spots. But just as we have described his colors our sunfish darts off and all sorts of shimmering, shining blue, green and purple tints play over his body; and as he settles down into another corner of the aquarium, his colors seem much paler and we have to describe him over again. The body below is brassy yellow. The beautiful colors which the male sunfish dons in spring, he puts at once to practical use. Professor Reighard says that when courting and trying to persuade his chosen one to come to his nest and there deposit her eggs, he faces her, with his gill covers puffed out, the scarlet or orange spot on the ear-flap standing out bravely, and his black ventral fins spread wide to show off their patent-leather finish. Thus does he display himself before her and in- timidate her; but he is rarely allowed to do this in peace. Other males as brilliant as he arrive on the scene and he must forsooth stop parading before his lady love in order to fight his rival, and he fights with as much display of color as he courts.

In the sunfish duel, however, the partici- pants do not seek to destroy each other but to intimidate each other. The vanquished one retires. Professor Gill says: "Mean- while the male has selected a spot in very shallow water near the shore, and gener- ally in a mass of aquatic vegetation, not too large or close together to entirely ex- clude the light and heat of the sun, and mostly under an overhanging plant. The choice is apt to be in some general strip of shallow water close by the shore which is favored by many others so that a num- ber of similar nests may be found close to- gether, although never encroaching on each other. Each fish slightly excavates and makes a saucer-like basin in the chosen area which is carefully cleared of all peb- bles. Such are removed by violent jerks of the caudal fin or are taken up by the mouth and carried to the circular boundary of the nest. An area of fine, clean sand or gravel is generally the result, but not infrequently, according to Dr. Reighard, the nest bottom is composed of the root- lets of water plants. The nest has a diameter of about twice the length of the fish." On the nest thus formed, the sunfish belle is invited to deposit her eggs, which as soon as laid fall to the bottom and become attached to the gravel at the bottom of the nest by the viscid substance which surrounds them. Her duty is then done and she departs, leaving the master in charge of his home and the eggs. If truth be told, he is not a strict monogamist. Professor Reighard noticed one of these males which reared in one nest two broods laid at quite different times by two fe- males. For about a week, depending upon

Page 165 (PDF 191)

Pishes

the temperature, the male is absorbed in his care of the eggs and defends his nest with much ferocity; but after the eggs have hatched he considers his duty done and lets his progeny take care of" them- selves as best they may.

Sunfish are easily taken care of in an aquarium, but each should be kept by himself, as they are likely to attack any smaller fish and are most uncomfortable neighbors. I have kept one of these beauti165 2. What is the general shape of the sunfish's body as seen from above? As seen from the side? Why is it called pump- kinseed?

3. Describe the dorsal fin. How many spines has it? How many soft rays? What is the difference in appearance between the front and hind dorsal fin? Do the two act together or separately? Describe the tail fin. Describe the anal fin. Has it any spines? If so, where are they? Where ful, shimmering pumpkinseeds for nearly are the ventral fins in relation to the pec- a year by feeding him every alternate day with an earthworm; the unfortunate worms are kept stored in damp soil in an iron kettle during the winter. When I threw one of them into the aquarium the sunfish would seize it and shake it as a terrier shakes a rat; but this was perhaps to make sure of his hold. Once he attempted to take a second worm directly after the first; but it was a doubtful proceeding, and the worm reappeared as often as a prima donna, waving each time a fren- zied farewell to the world.

SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Backyard Explo- ration, by Paul G. Howes; The Pet Book, by Anna B. Comstock; also, readings on page 144.

Lesson 42

The Sunfish

LEADING THOUGHT — The pumpkin- seeds are very gamy little fishes which seize the hook with much fierceness. They live in the still waters of our streams or in ponds and build nests in the spring, in which the eggs are laid and which they defend valiantly.

METHOD — The common pumpkinseed in the jar aquarium is all that is neces- sary for this lesson. However, it will add much to the interest of the lesson if the boys who have fished for pumpkinseeds will tell of their experiences. The chil- dren should acquire from this lesson an interest in nesting habits of the sun- fishes.

OBSERVATIONS — i. Where are the sunfish found? How do they act when they take the hook?

torals? What is there peculiar about the appearance and movements of the pec- toral fins?

4. Describe the eye of the sunfish. Is it large or small? Is 'it placed so that the fish can see on each side? Does the eye move in all directions?

5. Describe the position of the mouth. In which direction does it open?

6. What is the color of the upper portion of the gill opening or operculum?

What is the general color of the sunfish?

Above? Below? Along the sides? What markings do you see?

7. Where does the sunfish make its nest? Does the father or mother sunfish make the nest? Does one or both protect it? Describe the nest.

8. How many names do you know for the sunfish? Describe the actions of your sunfish in the aquarium. How does he act when eating an earthworm?

The lamprey is not a fish at all, only a wicked imitation of one which can deceive nobody. But there are fishes which are unquestionably fish — fish from gills to tail, from head to fin, and of these the little sunfish may stand first. He comes up the brook in the spring, fresh as " coin just from the mint/' finny arms and legs wide spread, his gills moving, his mouth open- ing and shutting rhythmically, his tail wide spread, and ready for any sudden motion for which his erratic little brain may give the order. The scales of the sun- fish shine with all sorts of scarlet, blue, green, and purple and golden colors. There is a blaclc spot on his head which looks like an ear, and sometimes grows out

Page 166 (PDF 192)

i66 ANIMALS in a long black flap, which makes the imitation still closer. There are many species of the sunfish, and there may be half a dozen of them in the same brook, but that makes no difference; for our purposes they are all one.

They lie poised in the water, with all fins spread, strutting like turkey-cocks, snapping at worms and little crustaceans and insects whose only business in the brook is that the fishes may eat them. When the time comes, the sunfish makes its nest in the fine gravel, building it with some care — for a fish. When the female has laid her eggs the male stands guard until the eggs are hatched. His sharp teeth and snappish ways, and the bigness of his appearance when the fins are all displayed, keep the little fishes away. Sometimes, in his zeal, he snaps at a hook baited with a worm. He then makes a fierce fight, and the boy who holds the rod is sure that he has a real fish this time. But when the sunfish is out of the water, strung on a willow rod, and dried in the sun, the boy sees that a very little fish can make a good deal of a fuss. — DAVID STARR JORDAN State of New York Conservation Department Johnny darter Boleosoma nigrum

The Johnny Darter

We never tired of watching the little Johnny, or Tessellated darter (Boleosoma nigrum); although our earliest aquarium friend, (and the very first specimens showed us by a rapid ascent of the river weed how " a Johnny could climb trees/') he has still many resources which we have never learned. Whenever we try to catch him with the hand we begin with all the uncertainty that characterized our first attempts, even if we have him in a two-quart pail. We may know him by his short fins, his first dorsal having but nine spines, and by the absence of all color save a soft, yellowish brown, which is freckled with darker markings. The dark brown on the sides is'arranged in seven or eight W-shaped marks, below which are a few flecks of the same color. Covering the sides of the back are the wavy markings and dark specks which have given the name of the " Tessellated Darter "; but Boleosoma is a preferred name, and we even prefer " boly " for short. In the spring the males have the head jet black; and this dark color often extends on the back part of the body, so that the fish looks as if he had been taken by the tail and dipped into a bottle of ink. But with the end of the nuptial season this color disappears and the fish regains his normal, strawy hue.

His actions are rather bird-like; for he will strike attitudes like a tufted titmouse and he flies rather than swims through the water. He will, with much perseverance, push his body between a plant and the sides of the aquarium and balance himself on a slen-

Page 167 (PDF 193)

Fishes

der stem. Crouching catlike before a snail shell, he will snap off a horn which the un- lucky owner pushes timidly out. But he is also less dainty and seizing the animal by the head, he dashes the shell against the glass or stones until he pulls the body out or breaks the shell. — DAVID STARR JORDAN The johnny darters are, with the sticklebacks, the most amusing little fish in the aquarium. They are well called darters since their movements are so rapid when they are frightened that the eye can scarcely follow them; and there is something so irresistibly comical in their bright, saucy eyes, placed almost on top of the head, that no one could help calling one of them " Johnny." A " johnny " will look at you from one side, and then as quick as a flash, will flounce around and study you with the other eye and then come toward you head-on so that he may take you in with both eyes; he seems just as interested in the Johnny out of the jar as is the latter in the johnny within.

The johnny darter has a queerly shaped body for a fish, for the head and shoulders are the larger part of him — not that he suddenly disappears into nothingness; by no means! His body is long and very slightly tapering to the tail; along his lateral line he has a row of olive-brown W's worked out in scale-mosaic; and he has some other scale-mosaics also following a pattern of angular lines and making blotches along his back. The whole upper part of his body is pale olive, which is a good imitation of the color of the brook. The astonished and anxious look on the johnny darter's face comes from the pe- culiar position of the eyes, which are set in the top of his forehead; they are big, alert eyes, with large black pupils, sur- rounded by a shining, pale yellow line at the inner edge of the green iris; and as the pupil is not set in the center of the eye, the iris above being wider than below, the result is an astonished look, as from raised eyebrows. The eyes move, often so swiftly that it gives the impression of winking. The eyes, the short snout, and the wide mouth give johnny a decidedly froglike aspect. Although he is no frog, yet johnny darter seems to be in a fair way to develop something to walk upon. His pec- toral fins are large and strong and the ventral pair are situated very close to them; when he rests upon the gravel he supports himself upon one or both of these pairs of fins. He rests with the pec- toral fins outspread, the sharp points of the rays taking hold of the gravel like toenails and thus giving him the appear- ance of walking on his fins; if you poke him gently, you will find that he is very firmly planted on his fins so that you can turn him around as if he were on a pivot.

He also uses the pectorals for swimming and jerks himself along with them in a way that makes one wonder if he could not swim well without any tail at all. The tail is large and almost straight across the end and is a most vigorous pusher. There are two dorsal fins. The front one has only spiny rays; when the fin is raised it appears almost semicircular in shape. The second dorsal fin is much longer, and when lifted stands higher than the front fin; its rays are all soft except the front one. As soon as the johnny stops swim- ming he shuts the front dorsal fin so that it can scarcely be detected; when he is frightened, his body lies motionless on the bottom; this act always reminds one of the "freezing" habit of the rabbit. But johnny does not stay scared very long; he lifts his head up inquisitively, stretching up as far as he is able on his feet, that is, his paired fins, in such a comical way that one can hardly realize he is a fish. The tail and the dorsal fin of the johnny darter are marked with silver dots which give them an exquisite spun-glass look; they are as transparent as gauze. The johnny darters live in clear, swift streams where they rest on the bottom, with the head upstream. Dr. Jordan has said they can climb up water weed with their paired fins. I have never observed them doing this but I have often seen one walk around the aquarium on his fins as if

Page 168 (PDF 194)

i68 ANIMALS they were little fan-shaped feet; and when swimming he uses his fins as a bird uses its wings. There are many species of dart- ers, some of them the most brilliantly colored of all our fresh-water fishes. The darters are perchlike in form.

Dr. Jordan says of the breeding habits of the darters: " On the bottom, among the stones, the female casts her spawn. Neither she nor the male pays any further attention to it, but in the breeding season the male is painted in colors as beautiful as those of the wood warblers. When you go to the brook in the spring you will find him there, and if you catch him and turn him over on his side you will see the colors that he shows to his mate, and which observation shows are most useful in frightening away his younger rivals. But do not hurt him. Put him back in the brook and let him paint its bottom with colors of a rainbow, a sunset or a garden of roses. All that can be done with blue, crimson and green pigments, in fish orna- mentation, you will find in some brook in which the darters live." SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Nature and Sci- ence Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Har- rison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; The Pet Boole, by Anna B. Comstock; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen; also, readings on page 144.

Lesson 43

Johnny Darter

LEADING THOUGHT — The johnny darter naturally rests upon the bottom of the stream. It uses its two pairs of paired fins somewhat as feet in a way interesting to observe.

METHOD — Johnny darters may be caught in nets with other small fish and placed in the aquarium. Place one or two of them in individual aquaria where the pupils may observe them at their leisure. They do best in running water. OBSERVATIONS — i. Describe or sketch the johnny darter from above. From the side. Can you see the W-shaped marks along its side? How is it colored above?

2. How are the pectoral fins placed?

Are they large or small? How are they used in swimming? Where are the ventral fins placed? How are the ventrals and dorsals used together? When resting on the bottom how are the pectoral fins used?

3. What is there peculiar about the dorsal fins of the johnny darter? When he is resting, what is the attitude of the dorsal fins? What is the difference in shape of the rays of the front and hind dorsal fins?

4. When resting on the bottom of the aquarium how is the body held? On what does it rest? In moving about the bottom slowly why does it seem to walk? How does it climb up water weed?

5. When frightened how does it act? Why is it called a darter? What is the attitude of all the fins when the fish is moving swiftly?

6. What is the shape of the tail?

7. What is there peculiar about the eyes of the johnny? Describe the eyes and their position. What is there in the life of the fish that makes this position of the eyes advantageous?

8. Where do we find the johnny dart- ers? In what part of the stream do they live? Are they usually near the surface of the water or at the bottom?

To my mind, the best of all subjects for nature-study is a brook. It affords stud- ies of many kinds. It is near and dear to every child. It is an epitome of the nature in which we live. In miniature, it illus- trates the forces which have shaped much of the earth's surface. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is rippled by the wind. The minnows play in the pools.

The soft weeds grow in the shallows. The grass and the dandelions lie on its sunny banks. The moss and the fern are shel- tered in the nooks. It comes from one knows not whence; it flows to one knows not whither. It awakens the desire to explore. It is fraught with mysteries. It typi- fies the flood of life. It goes on forever. In other words, the reason why the brook is such a perfect nature-study sub- ject is the fact that it is the central theme

Page 169 (PDF 195)

Fishes

in a scene of life. Living things appeal to children.

Nature-study not only educates, but it educates nature-ward; and nature is ever our companion, whether we will or no.

Even though we are determined to shut ourselves in an office, nature sends her messengers. The light, the dark, the moon, the cloud, the rain, the wind, the falling leaf, the fly, the bouquet, the bird, the cockroach — they are all ours. If one is to be happy, he must be in sympathy with common things. He must live in harmony with his environment.

One cannot be happy yonder nor to- morrow: he is happy here and now, or never. Our stock of knowledge of com- mon things should be great. Few of us can travel. We must know the things at home.

Nature-love tends toward naturalness, and toward simplicity of living. It tends country-ward. One word from the fields is worth two from the city. " God made the country.77 I expect, therefore, that much good will come from nature-study. It ought to revo- lutionize the school life, for it is capable of putting new force and enthusiasm into the school and the child. It is new, and therefore, is called a fad. A movement is a fad until it succeeds. We shall learn much, and shall outgrow some of our pres- ent notions, but nature-study has come to stay. It is in much the same stage of development that manual-training and kin- dergarten work were twenty-five years ago.

We must take care that it does not crystal- lize into science-teaching on the one hand, nor fall into mere sentimentalism on the other.

I would again emphasize the impor- tance of obtaining our fact before we let loose the imagination, for on this point will largely turn the results — the failure or the success of the experiment. We must not allow our fancy to run away with us.

If we hitch our wagon to a star, we must ride with mind and soul and body all alert.

When we ride in such a wagon, we must not forget to put in the tail-board. — " THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA," L. H. BAILEY

Page 170 (PDF 196)

Amphibians

Especially during early spring, one is likely to see many frogs, toads, and sala- manders about ponds and other shallow water. These animals are harmless creatures; they do not bite and their chief method of defense is to escape to some place of concealment.

While there are exceptions to the gen- eral rule, and great variations in the life habits of these animals, it may be said that they are fitted to spend certain pe- riods of their lives on land and other peri- ods in water. In general, the immature stages are passed in or quite near water and the young are commonly called tadpoles. Of course, this means that the males and females of most species must return each year to the ponds, streams, or pools for the purpose of mating. Eggs are laid at once and usually hatch within a few days; the length of time varies according to the species and the weather conditions.

To this entire group of cold-blooded an- imals the term amphibian is applied; this term was selected because it really means " double life " — these animals live part of their lives on land and part in or quite near water. The presence or absence of a tail, during adult life, divides the amphibi- ans into two more or less natural groups, the tailed and the tailless amphibians.

SUGGESTED READING — Along Nature's Trails, by Lillian C. Athey; Backyard Exploration, by Paul G. Howes; Field Boole of Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan; Our Great Outdoors, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes, by C. W. G. Eifrig; Outof -Doors, A Guide to Nature, by Paul B. Mann and George T. Hastings; Reptiles and Amphibians; Their Habits and Adap- tations, by Thomas Barbour; The Stir of Nature, by William H. Carr. (See also the Bibliography in the back of this book.) THE TAILLESS AMPHIBIANS This group includes the frogs and toads. In attaining the adult stage these animals lose their tadpole tails; but we do not mean that the tail drops from the body; rather let us say that it is absorbed by the body before the animal reaches the adult stage. THE COMMON TOAD The toad hopped by us with jolting springs. — AKERS Whoever has not had a pet toad has missed a most entertaining experience. Toad actions are surprisingly interesting; one of my safeguards against the blues is the memory of the thoughtful way one of my pet toads rubbed and patted its stomach with its little hands after it had swallowed a June bug. Toads do not make warts upon attacking hands, neither do they rain down nor are they found in the bedrock of quarries; but they do have a most interesting history of their own, which is not at all legendary, and which is very like a life with two incarnations. TADPOLES The mother toad lays her eggs in May and June in ponds, or in the still pools, along streams; the eggs are laid in long strings of jelly-like substance, and are

Page 171 (PDF 197)

Amphibians 171

dropped upon the pond bottom or attached to water weeds; when first depos- ited, the jelly is transparent and the little black eggs can be plainly seen; but after a day or two, bits of dirt accumulate upon the jelly, obscuring the eggs. At first the eggs are spherical, like tiny black pills; but as they begin to develop, they elongate and finally the tadpoles may be seen wrig- gling in the jelly mass, which affords them efficient protection. After four or five days, the tadpoles usually work their way out and swim away; at this stage, the only way to detect the head is by the direction of the tadpole's progress, since it naturally goes head first. However, the head soon becomes decidedly larger, although at first it is not provided with a mouth; it has, instead, a V-shaped elevation where the mouth should be, which forms a sucker secreting a sticky substance. By means of this substance the tadpole attaches itself to water weeds, resting head up. When the tadpoles are two or three days old, we can detect little tassels on either side of The toad in various stages of development from the egg to the adult A. A. and A. H. Wright Eggs of the spadefoot toad, Bufo com- pactilis. Some toads lay as many as 8,000 eggs in a season the throat, which are the gills by which the little creature breathes; the blood passes through these gills, and is purified by coming in contact with the air which is mixed in the water. About ten days later, these gills disappear beneath a mem- brane which grows down over them; but they are still used for breathing, simply having changed position from the outside to the inside of the throat. The water enters the nostrils to the mouth, passes through an opening in the throat and flows over the gills and out through a little opening at the left side of the body; this opening or breathing-pore can be easily seen in the larger tadpoles; and when the left arm develops, it is pushed out through this convenient orifice.

When about ten days old, the tadpole has developed a small, round mouth which is constantly in search of something to eat, and at the same time is con- stantly opening and shutting to take in air for the gills; the mouth is provided with horny jaws for biting off pieces of plants. As the tadpole develops, its mouth gets larger and wider and extends back beneath the eyes, with a truly toadlike expansiveness.

At first, the tadpole's eyes are even with the surface of the head and can scarcely be seen, but later they become more prom- inent and bulge like the eyes of the adult toad. The tail of the tadpole is long and flat, surrounded by a fin, and so is an or- gan for swimming. It strikes the water, first this side and then that, making most graceful curves, which seem to originate

Page 172 (PDF 198)

_ _ A. A. and A. H. Wright Eggs of Hammond's spadefoot, Scaphiopus hammondii. Although it looks so like our com- mon toad} the spadefoot belongs to a different genus; it lays its eggs in cylindrical masses on submerged twigs or grass near the body and multiply toward the tip of the tail. This movement propels the tadpole forward, or in any direction.

The tail is very thin when seen from above; and it is amusing to look at a tad- pole from above, and then at the side; it is like squaring a circle.

There is a superstition that tadpoles eat their tails; and in a sense this is true, because the material that is in the tail is absorbed into the growing body; but the last thing a right-minded tadpole would do would be to bite off its own tail. However, if some other tadpole should bite off the tail or a growing leg, these organs conveniently grow anew.

When the tadpole is a month or two old, depending upon the species, its hind legs begin to show; they first appear as mere buds which finally push out completely. The feet are long and are pro- vided with five toes, of which the fourth is the longest; the toes are webbed so that they may be used to help in swimming.

Two weeks later the arms begin to appear, the left one pushing out through the breathing-pore. The " hands " have four fingers and are not webbed; they are used in the water for balancing, while the hind legs are used for pushing, as the tail be- comes smaller.

As the tadpole grows older, not only does its tail become shorter but its actions change. It now comes often to the surface of the water in order to get more air for its gills, although it lacks the frog tadpole's nice adjustment of the growing lungs and the disappearing gills. At last, some fine rainy day, the little creature feels that it is finally fitted to live the life of a land animal. It may not be a half inch in length, with big head, attenuated body, and stumpy tail, but it swims to the shore, lifts itself on its front legs, which are scarcely larger than pins, and walks off, toeing in, with a very grownup air; and at this moment the tadpole attains toadship. Numbers of tadpoles come out of the water together, hopping hither and thither with all of the eagerness and vim of untried youth. It is through issuing thus in hordes from the water that they gain the reputation of being rained down, when they really were rained up. It is quite impossible for a beginner to detect the difference between the toad and the frog tadpole; usually those of the toads are black, while those of the frogs are otherwise colored, though this is not an invariable distinction. The best way to dis- tinguish the two is to get the eggs and develop the two families separately.

The Adult Toad

The general color of the common American toad is extremely variable. It may be yellowish brown, with spots of lighter color, and with reddish or yellow warts. There are likely to be four irregu- lar spots of dark color along each side of the middle of the back, and the under parts are light-colored, often somewhat spotted. The throat of the male toad is black and he is not so bright in color as is the female. The warts upon the back are glands, which secrete a substance disa-

Page 173 (PDF 199)

Amphibians

greeable for the animal seeking toad din- ners. This is especially true of the glands in the elongated swellings above and just back of the ear, which are called the parotid glands; these give forth a milky, poi- sonous substance when the toad is seized by an enemy, although the snakes do not seem to mind it. Some people have an idea that the toad is slimy, but this is not true; the skin is perfectly dry. The toad feels cold to the hand because it is a cold-blooded animal, which means an animal with blood the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere; the blood of the warm-blooded animal has a temperature of its own, which it maintains whether the surrounding air is cold or hot.

The toad's face is well worth study; its eyes are elevated and very pretty, the pupil being oval and the surrounding iris shining like gold. The toad winks in a whole- sale fashion, the eyes being pulled down into the head; the eyes are provided with nictitating lids, which rise from below, and are similar to those found in birds.

When a toad is sleeping, its eyes do not bulge but are drawn in, so as to lie even with the surface of the head. The two S. H. Gage A common toad, Bufo americanus, as he appears in winter sleep and after awakening in the spring A. A. and A. H. Wright The giant toad, Bufo alvarius. This huge toad of the Southwest is from 3^4 to 6% inches long. If molested it will secrete a fluid which is strong enough to paralyze a dog tiny nostrils are black and are easily seen; the ear is a flat, oval spot behind the eye and a little lower down; in the common species it is not quite so large as the eye; this is really the eardrum, since there is no external ear like ours. The toad's mouth is wide and its jaws are horny; it does not need teeth since it swallows its prey whole. The toad is a jumper, as may be seen from its long, strong hind legs, the feet of which are also long and strong and are armed with five toes that are somewhat webbed. The " arms " are shorter and there are four " fingers " to each " hand "; when the toad is resting, its front feet toe-in in a comical fashion. If a toad is removed from an earth or moss garden7 and put into a white wash-bowl, in a few hours it will change to a lighter hue, and vice versa. This is part of its protective color, making it inconspicuous to the eyes of its enemy. It prefers to live in cool, damp places, beneath sidewalks or porches, etc., and its warty upper surface resembles the surrounding earth. If it is disturbed, it will seek to escape by long leaps, and acts frightened; but if very much frightened, it flattens out on the ground, and looks so nearly like a clod of earth that it may escape even the keen eyes of its pursuer. When seized by the enemy, it will sometimes " play possum," acting as if it were dead; but when actually in the mouth of the foe, it emits terrified and heart-rending cries.

The toad's tongue is attached to the

Page 174 (PDF 200)

lower jaw, at the front edge of the mouth; it can thus be thrust far out, and since it secretes a sticky substance over its sur- face, any insects which it touches adhere, and are drawn back into the mouth and swallowed. It takes a quick eye to see this tongue fly out and make its catch.

The tadpole feeds mostly upon vegetable matter, but the toad lives entirely upon small animals, usually insects; it is not par- ticular as to what kind of insects, but beA. A. and A. H. Wright The little green toad, Bufo debilis. This small amphibian, resembling a lichen in ap- pearance, is about 1% inches long. It lives in grassy ^ flat lands from Kansas and Colorado south into northern Mexico cause of the situations which it haunts, it usually feeds upon those which are injuri- ous to grass and plants. Indeed, the toad is really the friend of the gardener and the farmer, and has been most ungratefully treated by those whom it has befriended. If you doubt that a toad is an animal of judgment, watch it when it finds an earthworm and set your doubts at rest!

It will walk around the squirming worm, until it can seize it by the head, apparently knowing well that the horny hooks extending backward from the segments of the worm are likely to rasp the throat if swallowed the wrong way. If the worm prove too large a mouthful, the toad promptly uses its hands in an amusing fashion to stuff the wriggling morsel down its throat. When swallowing a large mouthful, it closes its eyes; but whether this aids the process, or is merely an ex- pression of bliss, we have not determined.

The toad never drinks by taking in water through the mouth, but absorbs it through the skin; when it wishes to drink, it stretches itself out in shallow water and thus satisfies its thirst; it will waste away and die in a short time, if kept in a dry atmosphere.

The toad burrows in the earth by a method of its own, hard to describe. It kicks backward with its strong hind legs, and in some mysterious way, the earth soon covers all excepting its head; then, if an enemy comes along, back goes the head, the earth caves in around it, and where is your toad! It remains in its burrow or hiding place usually during the day, and comes out at night to feed. This habit is an advantage, because snakes are then safely at home and, too, there are many more insects to be found at night. The sagacious toads have discovered that the vicinity of street lights is swarming with insects, and there they gather in numbers.

In winter they burrow deeply in the ground and go to sleep, remaining dor- mant until the warmth of spring awakens them; then they come out, and the mother toads seek their native ponds there to lay eggs for the coming generation. They are excellent swimmers; when they are swimming rapidly, the front legs are laid back- ward along the sides of the body, so as to offer no resistance to the water; but when they are moving slowly, the front legs are used for balancing and for keeping afloat.

The song of the toad is a pleasant, crooning sound, a sort of guttural trill; it is made when the throat is puffed out almost globular, thus forming a vocal sac; the sound is made by the air drawn in at the nostrils and passed back and forth from the lungs to the mouth over the vocal chords, the puffed-out throat acting as a resonator.

The toad has no ribs by which to inflate the chest, and thus draw air into the lungs, as we do when we breathe; it is obliged to swallow the air instead and thus force it into the lungs. This movement is shown in the constant pulsation, in and out, of the membrane of the throat.

As the toad grows, it sheds its homy

Page 175 (PDF 201)

Amphibians

skin, which it swallows; as this process is usually done strictly in private, the ordi- nary observer sees it but seldom. One of the toad's nice common qualities is its enjoyment in having its back scratched gently. The toad has many enemies; chief among these is the snake and only less so are crows and also birds of prey. SUGGESTED READING — The Frog Book, by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert H. Wright; Mother Nature Series, by Fan- nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 2, By the Roadside; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe/Book i, Hunting; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A.

Hansen; Science Stories, by Wilbur L.

Beauchamp and Co-authors, Book i; also, readings on page 170.

Lesson 44

The Tadpole Aquarium

LEADING THOUGHT — The children should understand how to make the tadpoles comfortable and thus be able to rear them. MATERIALS — A tin or agate pan, a deep earthenware wash-bowl, a glass dish, or a wide-mouthed glass jar. THINGS TO BE DONE — i. Go to some pond where tadpoles live. 2. Take some of the small stones on the bottom and at the sides of the pond, lifting them very gently so as not to dis- turb what is growing on their surface. Place these stones on the bottom of the pan, building up one side higher than the other, so that the water will be more shal- low on one side than on the other; a stone or two should project above the water.

3. Take some of the mud and leaves from the bottom of the pond, being care- ful not to disturb them, and place upon the stones.

4. Take some of the plants found grow- ing under water in the pond and plant them among the stones.

5. Carry the pan thus prepared back to the schoolhouse and place it where the sun will not shine directly upon it.

6. Bring a pail of water from the pond and pour it very gently in at one side of the pan, so as not to disarrange the plants; fill the pan nearly to the brim. 7. After the mud has settled and the water is perfectly clear, remove some of the tadpoles which have hatched in the glass aquarium and place them in the " pond/' Not more than a dozen should be put in a pan of this size, since the amount of food and microscopic plants which are on the stones in the mud will afford food for only a few tadpoles.

8. Every week add a little more mud from the bottom of the pond or another stone covered with slime, which is prob- ably some plant growth. More water from the pond should be added to replace that evaporated.

9. Care should be taken that the tadpole aquarium be kept where the sun will not shine directly upon it for any length of time, because if the water gets too warm the tadpoles will die.

10. Pvemove the " skin " from one side of a tulip leaf, so as to expose the pulp of the leaf, and give to the tadpoles every day or two. Bits of hard-boiled egg should be given now and then.

Toads' Eggs And Tadpoles

LEADING THOUGHT — The toads' eggs are laid in strings of jelly in ponds. The eggs hatch into tadpoles which are crea- tures of the water, breathing by gills, and swimming with a long fin. The tadpoles gradually change to toads, which are air- breathing creatures, fitted for life on dry land.

METHOD — The eggs of toads may be found in almost any pond about the first of May and may be scraped up from the bottom in a scoop-net. They should be placed in the aquarium where the children can watch the stages of development. Soon after they are hatched, a dozen or so should be selected and placed in the tadpole aquarium and the others put back into the stream. The children should ob-

Page 176 (PDF 202)

F. Harper and A. A. Wright Southern toad, Bufo terrestris. When the male is croaking his throat is puffed out as in the picture. The color of the Southern toads varies from red or gray to black, and in size they range in length from 1% inches to 3% inches. They are found from North Carolina to Florida and west to the Mississippi River serve the tadpoles every day, watching carefully all the changes of structure and habit which take place. If properly fed, the tadpoles will be ready to leave the water in July as tiny toads. OBSERVATIONS — - 1 . Where were the toads' eggs found and on what date? Were they attached to anything in the water or were they floating free? Are the eggs in long strings? Do you find any eggs laid in jelly-like masses? If so, what are they? How can you tell the eggs of toads from those of frogs?

2. Is the jelly-like substance in which the eggs are placed clear or discolored?

What is the shape and the size of the eggs?

A little later how do they look? Do the young tadpoles move about while they are still in the jelly mass?

3. Describe how the little tadpole works its way out from the jelly covering. Can you distinguish then which is head and which is tail? How does the tadpole act at first? Where and how does it rest?

4. Can you see with the aid of a lens the little fringes on each side of the neck?

What are these? Do these fringes disappear a little later? Do they disappear on both sides of the neck at once?

What becomes of them? How does the tadpole breathe? Can you see the little hole on the left side, through which the water used for breathing passes?

5. How does the tail look and how is it used? How long is it in proportion to the body? Describe the act of swimming.

6. Which pair of legs appears first?

How do they look? When they get a little larger are they used as a help in swim- ming? Describe the hind legs and feet.

7. How long after the hind legs appear before the front legs or arms appear? What happens to the breathing-pore when the left arm is pushed through?

8. After both pairs of legs are developed what happens to the tail? What becomes of it?

9. When the tadpole is very young can you see its eyes? How do they look as it grows older? Do they ever bulge out like toads' eyes? 10. As the tadpole gains its legs and loses its tail how does it change in its actions? How does it swim now? Does it come oftener to the surface? Why? 11. Describe the difference between the front and the hind legs and the front and the hind feet on the fully grown tadpole. If the tail or a leg is bitten off by some other creature will it grow again?

Lesson 45

The Toad

LEADING THOUGHT — The toad is col- ored so that it resembles the soil and thus often escapes the observation of its ene- mies. It lives in damp places and eats insects, usually hunting them at night. It has powerful hind legs and is a vigorous jumper. METHOD — Make a moss garden in a glass aquarium jar thus: Place some stones or gravel in the bottom of the jar and cover with moss. Cover the jar with a wire screen. The moss should be deluged with water at least once a day and the jar should be placed where the direct sunlight will not study. reach it. In this jar, place the toacl for

OBSERVATIONS — i . Describe the gen- eral color of the toad above and below.

How does the toad's back look? Of what use are the warts on its back?

2. Where is the toad usually found?

Page 177 (PDF 203)

Amphibians

Does it feel warm or cold to the hand? Is it slimy or dry? The toad is a cold-blooded animal; what does this mean?

3. Describe the eyes and explain how their situation is of special advantage to the toad. Do you think it can see in front and behind and above all at the same time? Does the bulge of the eyes help in this? Note the shape and color of the pupil and iris. How does the toad wink?

4. Find and describe the nostrils. Find and describe the ear. Note the swelling above and just back of the ear. Do you know the use of this?

5. What is the shape of the toad's mouth? Has it any teeth? Is the toad's tongue attached to the front or the back part of the mouth? How is it used to catch insects?

6. Describe the "arms and hands."

How many " fingers " on the " hand "? Which way do the fingers point when the toad is sitting down?

7. Describe the legs and feet. How many toes are there? What is the relative length of the toes and how are they con- nected? What is this web between the toes for? Why are the hind legs so much larger than the front legs? 8. Will a toad change color if placed upon different colored objects? How long does it take it to do this? Of what advantage is this to the toad? 9. Where does the toad live? When it is disturbed how does it act? How far can it jump? If very frightened does it flatten out and lie still? Why is this? 10. At what time does the toad come out to hunt insects? How does it catch the insect? Does it swallow an earthworm head or tail first? When swallowing an earthworm or large insect, how does it use its hands? How does it act when swallowing a large mouthful? 11. How does the toad drink? Where does it remain during the day? Describe how it burrows into the earth.

12. What happens to the toad in the winter? What does it do in the spring? Is it a good swimmer? How does it use its legs in swimming?

13. How does the toad look when croaking? What sort of noise does it make?

14. Describe the action of the toad's throat when breathing. Did you ever see a toad shed its skin?

15. What are the toad's enemies? How does it act when caught by a snake? Does it make any noise? Is it swallowed head or tail first? What means has it of escap- ing or defending itself from its enemies? 16. How is the toad of great use to the farmer and gardener?

In the early years we are not to teach nature as science, we are not to teach it primarily for method or for drill: we are to teach it for loving — and this is naturestudy. On these points I make no com- promise. _L< H> BAILEY

The Spring Peeper Or Pickering'S Hyla

Ere yet the earliest warbler wakes, of coming spring to tell, From every marsh a chorus breaks, a choir invisible, As if the blossoms underground, a breath of utterance had found. — TABB Associated with the first songs of robin and bluebird, is the equally delightful chorus of the spring peepers, yet how in- frequently do most of us see a member of this invisible choir! There are some creatures which are the quintessence of the slang word " cute," which, interpreted, means the perfection of Lilliputian proportions, permeated with undaunted spirit. The chickadee is one of these, and the spring peeper is another. I confess to a thrill of delight when the Pickering's hyla lifts itself on its tiny front feet, twists its head knowingly, and turns on me the full gaze of its bronze-rimmed eyes. This is one of the tiniest f roglets of them all, be-

Page 178 (PDF 204)

i78 ANIMALS ing little more than an inch long when fully grown; it wears the Greek cross in A. A. and A. H. Wright The spring peeper^ Hyla crucifer. Here is shown the characteristic St. Andrew's cross on the peeper's back. This small frog, measur- ing % inch to 1% inches in length will be found from Manitoba to Maine and south- ward darker color upon its back, with some stripes across its long hind legs, which join the pattern on the back when the frog is " shut up/' as the boys say. The reason we see so little of spring peepers is that they are protected from discovery by their color. They have the chameleon power of changing color to match their background. This change can be effected in twenty minutes; the darker lines forming the cross change first, giving a mottled appearance which is at once pro- tective. I have taken three of these peep- ers, all of them pale yellowish brown with gray markings, and have placed one upon a fern, one on dark soil, and one on the A. A. and A. H. Wright The note of the male spring peeper is a shrill, clear call and while it is being given his throat expands into a large bubble purple bud of a flower. Within half an hour, each matched its surroundings so closely that the casual eye would not detect them. The song of the Pickering's hyla is a resonant chirp, very stirring when heard nearby; it sounds somewhat like the note of a water bird. How such a small creature can make such a loud noise is a mystery. The process, however, may be watched at night by the light of a flash- light or lantern, as none of the peepers seem to pay any attention to an artificial light; the thin membrane beneath the throat swells out until it seems almost A. A. and A. H. Wright The green tree frog} Hyla cinerea cinerea. These frogs, 1% to 2% inches long are bright green in color with a straw-colored stripe along each side. On the tips of their toes are discs which enable them to cling to vertical surfaces. The green tree frogs are found from Virginia to Texas and up the Mississippi River to Illinois large enough to balloon the little chap off his perch. No wonder that, with such a sounding-sac, the note is stirring. The spring peepers have toes and fingers ending in little round discs which secrete at will a substance by means of which they can cling to vertical surfaces, even to glass. In fact, the time to study these wonderful feet is when the frog is climb- ing up the sides of the glass jar. The fingers are arranged as follows: two short inside ones, a long one, and another short

Page 179 (PDF 205)

Amphibians

one outside. The hind feet have three shorter inside toes quite far apart, a long one at the tip of the foot and a shorter one outside. When climbing a smooth surface like glass, the toes are spread wide apart, and there are other little clinging discs on their lower sides, although not so large as those at the tips. It is by means of these sticky, disclike toes that the animals hold themselves upon the tree trunks or other upright objects.

The whole body of the tree frog, a rela- tive of the spring peeper, is covered with little tubercles, which give it a roughened appearance. The eyes are black with the iris of reddish color. The tongue is like that of other frogs, hinged to the front of the lower jaw; it is sticky and can be thrust far out to capture insects, of which the tree frogs eat vast numbers.

The spring peepers breathe by the rapid pulsation of the membrane of the throat, which makes the whole body tremble.

The nostrils are two tiny holes on either side of the tip of the snout. The ears are a little below and just behind the eyes, and are in the form of circular discs.

The eggs of the spring peepers are laid in ponds during April; each egg has a little globe of jelly about it and is fastened to a stone or a water plant. The tadpoles are small and delicate; the under side of the body is reddish and shines with metallic A. A. and A. H. Wright Common tree toad, Hyla versicolor versi- color. From Maine and southern Canada to the Gulf states is the range of these tree toads; their habitat is trees, logs, or stone fences. The color varies from ashy gray to brown or green; on the back is an irregular dark star. The eggs, in groups of thirty to forty, are attached to vegetation at the sur- face of the water A. A. and A. H. Wright Anderson tree jrog, Hyla andersonii. This is a small, beautiful, green frog with a light- bordered, plum-colored band along each side of its body. It lives chiefly in white cedar swamps from New Jersey to South Carolina luster. These tadpoles differ from those of other frogs in that they often leave the water while the tail is still quite long. In summer, they may be found among the leaves and moss around the banks of ponds. They are indefatigable in hunting for gnats, mosquitoes, and ants; their de- struction of mosquitoes, as pollywogs and as grown up frogs, renders them of great use to us. The voice of this peeper may be occasionally heard among the shrubs and vines or in trees during late summer and until November. The little creatures sleep beneath moss and leaves during the winter, waking to give us the earliest news of spring.

SUGGESTED READING — The Frog Book, by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert H. Wright; Mother Nature Series, by Fan- nie W. Dunn and Eleanor Troxell, Book 3, In Field and Forest; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen; also, readings on page 170.

Lesson 46

Spring Peeper Or Pickering'S Hyla

LEADING THOUGHT — The prettiest part of the spring chorus of the frog ponds is sung by the spring peepers. These little frogs have the tips of their toes specially fitted for climbing up the sides of trees.

METHOD — Make a moss garden in an aquarium jar or a two-quart can. Place stones in the bottom and moss at one side, leaving a place on the other side for a

Page 180 (PDF 206)

i8o ANIMALS tiny pond of water. In this garden place a spring peeper, cover the jar with mos- quito netting, and place in the shade. The frogs may be found by searching the banks of a pond at night with a lantern. However, this lesson is usually given when by accident the spring peeper is discov- ered. Any species of tree frog will do; but the Pickering's hyla, known every- where as the spring peeper, is the most interesting species to study.

OBSERVATIONS — i . How large is the peeper? What is its color? Describe the markings.

2. Place the peeper on some light- colored surface like a piece of white blotting paper. Note if it changes color after a half hour. Later place it upon some dark surface. Note if it changes color again.

How does this power of changing color benefit the animal? Place a peeper on a piece of bark. After a time does it be- come inconspicuous?

3. Describe the eyes. Note how little the creature turns its head to see any- thing behind it. Describe its actions if its attention is attracted to anything. What color is the pupil? The iris?

4. Note the movement of breathing. Where does this show the most? Examine the delicate membrane beneath the throat. What has this to do with the breathing?

5. What is the peeper's note? At what time of day does it peep? At what time of year? Describe how the frog looks when peeping. 6. How does the peeper climb? When it is climbing up a vertical surface study its toes. How many on the front foot? How are they arranged? How many toes on the hind foot? Sketch the front and hind feet.

How do the toe-discs look when pressed against the glass? How does it manage to make the discs cling and then let go? Are there any more discs on the under side of the toes? Is there a web between the toes of the hind feet? Of the front feet?

7. Look at a peeper very closely and describe its nostrils and its ears.

8. Are the peepers good jumpers?

What is the size and length of the hind legs as compared with the body? 9. When and where are the eggs of the peeper laid? How do they look? 10. How do the peeper tadpoles differ from other tadpoles? Describe them if you have ever seen them. In what situa- tions do they live?

11. Of what use are the peepers to us?

The Frog

The stroller along brooksides is likely to be surprised some day at seeing a bit of moss and earth suddenly make a long, high leap, without apparent provocation. An investigation resolves the clump of moss into a brilliantly green-spotted frog with two light-yellow raised stripes down his back; and then the stroller wonders how he could have overlooked such an obvious creature. But the leopard frog is only obvious when it is out of its environ- ment. The common green frog is quite as well protected since its color is exactly that of green pools. Most frogs spend their lives in or about water, and if caught on land they make great leaps to reach their native element; the leopard frog and a few other species, however, sometimes wander far afield.

In form, the frog is more slim than the toad, and is not covered with great warts; it is cold and slippery to the touch. The frog's only chance of escaping its enemies is through the slipperiness of its body and by making long, rapid leaps. As a jumper, the frog is much more powerful than the toad because its hind legs are so much larger and more muscular, in comparison with its size. The first toe in the front foot of the male leopard frog is much swollen, making a fat thumb; the me- chanics of the hind legs make it possible for the frog to feather the webbed feet as it swims. On the bottom of the toes are

Page 181 (PDF 207)

Amphibians 181

The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. This is our largest frog, sometimes attaining a length of S inches. It is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains from Canada to Mexico. The bullfrog has a greenish drab back and a yellowish underside. The eggs are laid in a film, perhaps 2 feet square on the surface of still water. Its sonorous bass notes, jug-o'-rum, are heard in the evenings of early summer hardened places at the joints, and some- times others besides, which give the foot a strong hold when pushing for the jump.

The toe tips, when they are pressed against the glass, resemble slightly the peepers7 discs. The hind foot is very long, while on the front foot the toes radiate almost in a circle. The foot and leg are colored like the back of the body above, and on the under side resemble the under parts. The frog is likely to be much more brightly colored than the toad, and usually has much of green and yellow in its dress.

But the frog lives among green things, while it is to the toad's advantage to be the color of the soil. Frogs also have the chameleon power of changing color to harmonize with their environment. I have seen a very green leopard frog change to a slate-gray when placed upon slate-col- ored rock. The change took place in the green portions. The common green frog will likewise change to slate-color, in a similar situation. A leopard frog changed quickly from dark green to pale olive, when it was placed in the water after hav- ing been on the soil.

The eyes of frogs are very prominent, and are beautiful when observed closely.

The green frog has a dark bronze iris with a gleaming gold edge around the pupil, and around the outer margin. The eye of the leopard frog is darker; the iris seems to be black, with specks of ruddy gold scat- tered through it, and there is an outer band of red-gold around the margin. When the frog winks, the nictitating membrane rises from below and covers the whole eye; and when the frog makes a special effort of any sort, it has a comical way of drawing its eyes back into its head. When trying to hide at the bottom of the aquarium, the leopard species lets the eyelids fall over the eyes, so that they do not shine up and attract pursuers.

The ear is in a similar position to that of the toad, and in the bullfrog is larger than the eye. In the green frog, it is a dull grayish disc, almost as large as the eye. In the leopard frog, it is not so large as the eye, and may have a giltish spot at the center.

The nostrils are small and are closed when below the water, as may be easily seen by a lens. The mouth opens widely, the corners extending back under the eye.

Page 182 (PDF 208)

182 Animals

A. A. and A. H. Wright Male green frog, Rana clamitans. These in- habitants oj deep and shallow ponds are found in eastern North America from Hudson Bay to the Gulf. In the North they are among the largest frogs, ranging jrom 2 to 4 inches in length. The jemale is shown in the following picture The jaws are horny and are armed with teeth, which are for the purpose of bit- ing off food rather than for chewing it.

When above water, the throat keeps up a rhythmic motion which is the process of breathing; but when below water this motion ceases. The food of frogs is largely composed of insects which frequent damp places or live in the water.

The sound-sacs of the leopard frogs, instead of being beneath the throat, as is the case with toads and peepers, are at the side of the throat; and when inflated may extend from just back of the eyes, out above the front legs and part way down the sides. The song is char- acteristic, and pleasant to listen to, if not too close by. Perhaps exception should be A. A. and A. H. Wright Female green frog, Rana clamitans. The color of these frogs in general is greenish brown with a bright green mark from the eardrum forward along the jaw. Note that the eardrum of the male is larger than that of the female made to the lay of the bullfrog, which like the song of some noted opera singers, is more wonderful than musical; the boom of the bullfrog makes the earth fairly quake. If we seize the frog by the hind leg, it will usually croak and thus demonstrate for us the position of its sound-sacs. In addition to the snakes, the frogs have inveterate enemies in the herons, which frequent shallow water and eat them in great numbers. The frogs hibernate in mud and about ponds, burrowing deep enough to escape freezing. In the spring, they come up and sing their spring songs and the mother leopard frogs lay their eggs in masses of jelly on the bottom of the pond, usually where the water is A. A, and A. H. Wright Wood frog} Rana sylvatica. In spring these frogs are found about ponds and temporary pools in wooded areas; at other times they are in the woods. They even hibernate under stumps, stones, or logs in or near woods. Their color varies from tan to brown, a prominent black mask covering the sides of the head. They range from, Quebec and Nova Scotia south to the Carolinas and westward to the plains deeper than in the situations where the toads' eggs are laid. The eggs of the two can always be distinguished, since the toads' are laid in strings of jelly, while the leopard frogs' are laid in masses. The bull- frog and green frog lay large films of eggs on the surface of the water.

It is amusing to watch with a lens the frog tadpoles seeking for their microscopic food along the glass of the aquarium.

There are horny upper and lower jaws, the latter being below and back of the former.

The upper jaw moves back and forth slightly and rhythmically, but the drop- ping of the lower jaw opens the mouth.

There are three rows of tiny black teeth

Page 183 (PDF 209)

Amphibians

below the mouth and one row above; at the sides and below these teeth are little, finger-like fringes. Fringes, rows of teeth, and jaws all work together, up and down, out and in, in the process of breathing.

The nostrils, although minute, are present in the tadpole in its early stages. The pupil of the eye is almost circular and the iris is usually yellow or copper-bronze, with black mottling. The eyes do not wink or withdraw. The breathing-pore, which is A. A. and A. H. Wright Southern leopard frog, Rana sphenoceph- ala. The home of this frog is in swamps, over- flowed areas, or ponds in the southeastern states and northward along the coast to New Jersey. The pointed snout, glistening white underside, and ridges extending backward from each eye are characteristic on the left side, is a hole in a slight pro- tuberance.

At first, the tadpoles of the frogs and toads are very much alike; but later most of the frog tadpoles are lighter in color, usually being olive-green, mottled with specks of black and white. The frog tad- poles usually remain much longer than the toads in the tadpole stage, and when finally they change to adults, they are far larger in size than the toads are when they attain their jumping legs.

SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; The Frog Book, by Mary C. Dickerson; Handbook of A. A. and A. H. Wright Eggs of leopard frog, Rana pipiens pipiens. and wood frog, Rana sylvatica. The eggs of the leopard frog are laid in a flattened sphere in waters of swampy marshes, overflows, and ponds. In summer,, the adults are found in swampy areas, grassy woodlands, or even hay or grain fields. They range from the Pacific coast states into Mexico. The eggs of the wood frog are laid in round masses Frogs and Toads, by Anna A. and Albert H. Wright; Holiday Pond, by Edith M. Patch; Nature and Science Readers, by Edith M. Patch and Harrison E. Howe, Book 2, Outdoor Visits; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen; The Story of Frogs, by Mary B. Herring (Unit Study Book, No. 351); also, read- ings on page 170. LESSON 47 THE FROG LEADING THOUGHT — The frog lives near or in ponds or streams. It is a powerA. A. and A. H. Wright Wright's bullfrog, Rana heckscheri. This is a transforming tadpole. Note that the left front leg has not yet pushed through the skin. The range of this frog is from South Carolina to Mississippi

Page 184 (PDF 210)

Tailless Amphibians

1 and 2. AMERICAN BELL TOAD, Ascaphus truei, male and fern-ale. The size of this toad is \Y% to 2 inches. Note that the male is tailed.

Range: Northern California, Oregon, and Washington, and eastward into Montana.

Habitat: Usually under rocks in small, cold mountain streams; in rainy seasons they may be found a short distance away from the water.

They seem to be rather solitary in habit.

3 and 4. OAK TOAD, Bufo quercicus. The adults of this pigmy toad range in size from *A to \Y± inches. Its color varies from light brown to almost black. Note the expanded vocal sac of the male (No. 4); when deflated it is an apron fold under the throat. The call is a high whistle, which is more birdlike than froglike. A chorus of calls can be heard for more than an eighth of a mile.

Range: North Carolina to Florida, west to Louisiana. Habitat: Pine barrens.

5. NARROW MOUTH TOAD, Microhyla carolinensis. The size of these dark, smooth-skinned toads ranges from %toiy5 inches. The voice of the males resembles the bleating of sheep. The eggs are laid in a surface film, each egg being clearly outlined.

Range: From Virginia to Florida, westward to Texas. Habitat: In moist places under virtually any kind of cover, even haycocks and decaying logs.

6. CANYON or SPOTTED TOAD, Bufo punctatus. This toad is iy5 to 3 inches in size; its color varies from greenish tan to red. The call is high pitched and birdlike. The eggs are laid singly in pools of intermittent streams. This toad breeds from April to July.

Range: South central Texas to Lower California and California. Habitat: Desert canyons.

7. GREAT PLAINS TOAD, Bufo cognatus.

These large-bodied, brown, gray, or greenish toads measure from 1% to 4 inches. Their call is harsh and low pitched. The vocal sac is shaped like a sausage stood on end.

Range: Mostly west of the 10(M meridian, from North Dakota southwestward to Mexico and eastern California. Habitat: Grazing lands in flood plains.

8. SPADEFOOT TOAD, Bufo compactilis. The size of this desert toad is 2 to 3% inches; its color is pinkish drab. It breeds in pools or even in cattle tanks. Note the expanded sausagelike vocal sac of this male.

Range: Utah and Nevada eastward to Oklahoma and southward into Mexico. Habitat: Deserts.

9. HAMMOND'S SPADEFOOT, Scaphiopus hammondii. This toad ranges from 1% to 2% inches in size. It breeds in temporary pools; the tadpoles eat many mosquitoes, and the toads eat many tadpoles. It is seldom seen above ground except during rains of long duration. The unusual call is plaintive and catlike.

Range: From North Dakota southward to Mexico, and westward to the Pacific coast.

Habitat: Burrows, which it digs in moist ground with its strong, spadelike feet, and into which it pushes itself by rocking its body.

10. CANADIAN or WINNIPEG TOAD, Bufo hemiophrys. In size this toad ranges from 2% to 3K inches. It has a very prominent heavy, horny boss between its eyes and on its snout.

It may breed in the shallows at the edges of any body of fresh water. Range: North Dakota to Manitoba. Habitat: Lakes and stream valleys.

11 and 12. YOSEMITE TOAD, Bufo canorus, male and female. This is the only toad in the United States that shows marked difference between male and female. The male (No. 11) is olive-colored, while the female (No. 12) is light gray with many black areas. Its size is from 2 to 3 inches.

Range: Yosemite National Park and central Sierra Nevada at altitudes of 1000 to 1100 feet. Habitat: Wet meadows and mar* gins of streams and lakes.

Photographs by A. A. and A. H. Wright

Page 185 (PDF 211)

[Blank or Illustrated Page Scan]

Page 186 (PDF 212)

•i86 ful jumper and has a slippery body. Its eggs are laid in masses of jelly at the bot- tom of ponds.

METHOD — The frog may be studied in its native situation by the pupils or it may be brought to the school and placed in an aquarium; however, to make a frog aquarium there needs to be a stick or stone projecting above the water, for the frog likes to spend part of the time en- tirely out of water or only partially sub- merged.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Where is the frog found? Does it live all its life in the water? When found on land how and where does

it seek to escape?

2. Compare the form of the frog with that of the toad. Describe the frog's skin, its color and texture. Compare the skins of the two.

3. Describe the colors and markings of the frog on the upper and on the under side. How do these protect it from obser- vation from above? From below? How do we usually discover that we are in the vi- cinity of a frog?

4. Describe the frog's ears, eyes, nos- trils, and mouth.

5. Compare its " hands and feet " with those of the toad. Why the difference in the hind legs and feet? 6. How does the frog feel to your hand?

Is it easy to hold him? How does this slipperiness of the frog benefit it? 7. On what does the frog feed? What feeds on it? How does it escape its ene- mies?

8. What sounds does the frog make?

Where are the sound-sacs of the leopard frog located? How do they look when they are inflated?

9. Is the frog a good swimmer? Is it a better jumper than the toad? Why?

10. Where are the leopard frog's eggs laid? How do they look?

11. Can you tell the frog tadpoles from , those of the toad? Which remains longer in the tadpole stage? Study the frog tadpoles, following the questions given in Les- son 44.

12. What happens to the frog in winter?

Festina Lente

Once on a time there was a pool Fringed all about with Rag-leaves cool And spotted with cow-lilies garish, Of frogs and pouts the ancient parish. Aiders the creaking redwings sink on, Tussocks that house blithe Bob o' Lincoln, Hedged round the unassailed seclusion, Where musfcrats piled their cells Carthusian; And many a moss-embroidered log, The watering-place of summer frog, Slept and decayed with patient skill, As watering-places sometimes will. Now in this Abbey of Theleine, Which realized the fairest dream That ever dozing bull-frog had, Sunned, on a half-sunk lily pad, There rose a party with a mission To mend the polliwog's condition, Who notified the selectmen To call a meeting there and then.

"Some kind of steps," they said, "are needed; They don't corne on so fast as we did: Let's dock their tails; if that don't make 'em Frogs by brevet, the Old One take 'em/ That boy, that came the other day To dig some flag-root down this way, His jack-knife left, and 'tis a sign That Heaven approves of our design: 'T were wicked not to urge the step on, When Providence has sent the weapon." Old croalcers, deacons of the mire, That led the deep batrachian choir, " Ukl Uk! Caronkl " with bass that might Have left Lablache's out of sight, Shook nobby heads, and said " No go! You'd better let 'em try to grow: Old Doctor Time is slow, but still He does know bow to make a pill." But vain was all their hoarsest bass, Their old experience out of place, And spite of croaking and entreating The vote was carried in marsh-meeting.

" Lord knows," protest the polliwogs, " We're anxious to be grown-up frogs; But don't push in to do the work Of Nature till she prove a shirk; 'Tis not by jumps that she advances,

Page 187 (PDF 213)

Amphibians

But wins her way by circumstances; Pray, wait awhile, until you know We're so contrived as not to grow; Let Nature talce her own direction, And she'll absorb our imperfection; You mightn't like 'em to appear with, But we must have the things to steer with." " No," piped the party of reform, " All great results are ta'en by storm; Fate holds her best gifts till we show We've strength to make her let them go; The Providence that works in history, And seems to some folks such a mystery.

Does not creep slowly on, incog., But moves by jumps, a mighty frog; No more reject the Age's chrism, Your queues are an anachronism; No more the future's promise mock, But lay your tails upon the block, Thankful that we the means have voted To have you thus to frogs promoted." The thing was done, the tails were cropped, And home each philotadpole hopped, In faith rewarded to exult, And wait the beautiful result.

Too soon it came; our pool, so long The theme of patriot bull-frog's song, Next day was reeking, fit to smother, With heads and tails that missed each other, — Here snoutless tails, there tailless snouts; The only gainers were the pouts.

Moral

From lower to the higher next, Not to the top is Nature's text; And embryo Good, to reach full stature, Absorbs the Evil in its nature. •— LOWELL

The Tailed Amphibians

The best-known representatives of this group are the salamanders of various types.

Barring accidents, a salamander retains its tail throughout life. Salamanders resem- ble lizards in shape, and many people have incorrectly called them lizards. It is not difficult to distinguish them, if one bears in mind that the covering of the salamander is rather soft and somewhat moist, while that of the lizard is rather dry and in the form of scales.

The red-backed salamander lacks the amphibian habits usual to the group; it lives on land during its entire life. The eggs are laid in a small cluster, in a decay- ing log or stump; the adult is often to be found quite near the egg cluster. On the other extreme, the mud puppies and hell- benders spend their entire lives in the water. They are rarely seen, live chiefly under rocks in stream beds, and feed chiefly at night.

The many local forms of amphibians offer excellent opportunities for interesting outdoor studies. Of the tailed am- phibians, the newt is considered in detail, and pictures of other representative sala- manders are shown.

SUGGESTED READING — Backyard Exploration, by Paul G. Howes; Nature— by Seaside and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 4, Our Earth and Its Life; The Pond Book, by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen: also, readings on page 170. THE NEWT OR EFT One of the most commonly seen sala- or woodland paths, and since they are manders is the newt or eft. After a rain rarely seen except after rain, the wise in spring or summer, we see these little people of old declared they rained down, orange-red creatures sprawling along roads which was an easy way of explaining their

Page 188 (PDF 214)

A spotted salamander in natural surroundings presence. But the newts do not rain down, they rain up instead, since if they have journeys to make they must needs go forth when the ground is damp; otherwise they would dry up and die. Thus, the newts make a practice of not going out except when the ground is rather moist. A closer view of the eft shows plenty of peculiari- ties in its appearance to interest us. Its colors are decidedly gay, the body color being orange, ornamented with vermilion dots along each side of the back, each red dot being usually margined with tiny black specks; but the eft is careless about these decorations and may have more spots on one side than on the other. Besides these vermilion dots, it is also adorned with black specks here and there, and espe- cially along its sides looks as if it had been peppered. The newt's greatest beauty lies in its eyes; these are black, with elongated pupils, almost parallel with the length of the head, and bordered above and below with bands of golden, shining iris which give the eyes a fascinating brilliancy. The nostrils are mere pinholes in the end of the snout.

The legs and feet look queerly inade- quate for such a long body, since they are short and far apart. There are four toes on the front feet and five on the hind feet, the latter being decidedly pudgy. The legs are thinner where they join the body and wider toward the feet. The eft can move very rapidly with its scant equipment of legs. It has a mis- leading way of remaining motionless for a long time and then darting forward like a flash, its long body falling into graceful curves as it moves. But it can go very slowly when exploring; it then places its little hands cautiously and lifts its head as high as its short arms will allow, in order to take observations. Although it can see quite well, yet on an unusual surface, like glass, it seems to feel the way by touch- ing its lower lip to the surface as if to test it. The tail is flattened at the sides and is used to twine around objects in time of need; and I ara sure it is also used to

Page 189 (PDF 215)

Amphibians

push the eft while crawling, for it curves this way and that vigorously, as the feet progress, and obviously pushes against the ground. Then, too, the tail is an aid when, by some chance, the eft is turned over on its back, for with its help it can right itself speedily. The eft's method of walking is interesting; it moves forward one front foot and then the hind foot on the other side; after a stop for rest, it begins just where it left off when it again starts on.

Its beautiful eyes seem to serve the newt well indeed, for I find that, when it sees my face approaching the moss jar, it climbs promptly over to the other side.

There are no eyelids for the golden eyes, but the eft can pull them back into its head and close the slit after them, thus making them very safe.

The eft with whose acquaintance I was most favored was not yet mature and was afraid of earthworms; but he was very fond of plant lice and it was fun to see the little creature stalking them. A big rose plant louse would be squirming with satis- faction as it sucked the juice of the leaf, when the eft would catch sight of it and become greatly excited, evidently holding his breath, since the pulsating throat would become rigid. There was a particu- larly alert attitude of the whole front part of the body and especially of the eyes and the head; then the neck would stretch out long and thin, and the orange snout approach stealthily to within half an inch of the smug aphid. Then there would be a flash as of lightning, something too swift to see coming out of the eft's mouth and swooping up the unsuspecting louse. Then Red-spotted newt stalking plant lice S. C. Bishop Giant or California newt, Triturus torosus.

About ponds and streams from- lower Cali- jornia to Alaska this newt may be seen; its body is stout and is about six inches long there would be a gulp or two and all would be over. If the aphid happened to be a big one, the eft made visible effort to swallow it. Sometimes his ef tship would become greatly excited when he first saw the plant louse, and he would sneeze and snort in a very comical way, like a dog eager for game. This is the history of this species as summarized from Mrs. S. H. Gage's charming Story of Little Red Spot. The egg is laid in some fresh-water pond or the still borders of some stream where there is a growth of water weed. The egg, which is about the size of a sweet pea seed, is fas- tened to a water plant. It is covered with a tough but translucent envelope, and has at the center a little yellowish globule. In a little less than a month the eft hatches, but it looks very different from the form with which we are most familiar. It has gray stripes upon its sides and three tiny bunches of red gills on each side, just back of its broad head. The keeled tail is long and very thin. The newt is an expert swimmer and breathes water as does a fish. After a time it becomes greenish above and buff below, and by the middle of August it develops legs and has changed its form so that it is able to live upon land; it no longer has gills; soon the coat changes to the bright orange hue which makes the little creature so conspicuous.

The newt usually keeps hidden among moss, or under leaves, or in decaying wood, or in other damp and shady places; but after a rain, when the whole world is damp, it feels confidence enough to go out in the open and hunt for food. For about two and a half years it lives upon land; then it returns to the water. When this

Page 190 (PDF 216)

TAILED AMPHIBIANS1 and 2. SPOTTED SALAMANDER, Ambystoma maculatum. The adults are 6 inches long or more; the body is glistening black with prominent yellow spots. These, like other salamanders, are entirely harmless; they neither bite nor scratch. Their egg-masses are deposited during early spring, while the water is still very cold, in swampy areas or stagnant pools, and are often attached to sticks or to submerged parts of plants.

While the eggs are developing, a greenish color, caused by the presence of numerous algae, appears in the gelatin of the egg-mass. This seems to be peculiar to the egg-mass of this salamander, and biologists are trying to learn the reason for it.

Range: Locally in central North America from Wisconsin and Nova Scotia southward.

Habitat: Damp dark places during most of the year. In spring they migrate to ponds to breed.

3. RED SALAMANDER, Pseudotriton ruber.

Adults are about 6 inches long; young adults are coral red with irregular black spots; older adults are somewhat purplish brown; the eggs, laid in autumn, are attached to the underside of a stone in a stream.

Range: Locally from New York to Georgia, westward to the Mississippi River. Habitat: Under flat stones in shallow water.

4. MARBLED SALAMANDER, Ambystoma opacum. Adults are about 5 inches long, bluish beneath and slaty gray on the back, with about 14 grayish-white bars. The creature is not likely to be mistaken for any other large salamander found within its range, because the others are marked with yellow.

Range: Eastern and central North America.

Habitat: Under flat stones or in burrows in the soil.

5. MUD PUPPY, Necturus rnaculosus. This Range: The central portion of the Missisanimal, which looks like a huge salamander, sippi drainage basin. Habitat: Caves.

Photographs, except Figure 2, by S. C. Bishop; Figure 2 by Charles E. Mohr has no scales, and its body is shiny. It does not come out on land, Range: Eastern and central United States.

Habitat: Rivers and lakes.

6. TIGER SALAMANDER, Ambystoma tigrinum. This is a large, dark brown, yellow-* splotched salamander. The young, which are called Axolotl, may even breed while still retaining their external gills and living in the water.

Range: The United States east of the Cas- cades.

7. SLIMY SALAMANDER, Plethodon glutinosus. Adults are about 5 to 6 inches long. The body, which is very sticky, has a ground color of black; the speckles vary from white to gray or even silver. The belly has a dull lead color which may or may not be flecked with white.

Range: New York to Wisconsin, south to Florida and Texas.

8. SLENDER SALAMANDER, Batrachoseps attenuatus. The body of this salamander is slender, the legs are small and weak, and the tail is long. The color in general is brown, but slightly lighter on the back than on the belly and sides.

Range: The Pacific slope from southwestern Oregon to California.

9. CAVE SALAMANDER, Typhlotriton speIseus. This inconspicuous salamander has a uniformly pale — almost while — body. The eyes are rudimentary and are somewhat concealed by the skin.

Range: The Ozark plateau region of Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri. Habitat: Caves.

10. CAVE SALAMANDER, Eurycea lucifuga.

The back of this salamander is vermilion or orange, with irregular dark brown or black

Page 191 (PDF 217)

[Blank or Illustrated Page Scan]

Page 192 (PDF 218)

192 Animals

impulse comes upon it, it may be far from any stream; but it seems to know instinctively where to go. After it enters the water, it is again transformed in color, becoming olive-green above and buff be- low, although it still retains the red spots i? it Anna Stryke Early stage of vermilion-spotted newt. Eggs of newt attached to water plant along the back; and it also retains its pepper-like dots. Its tail develops a keel which extends along its back and is somewhat ruffled.

The male has the hind legs very large and flat; the lighter-colored female has more delicate and smaller legs. It is here in the water that the efts find their mates and finish careers which must surely have been hazardous. During its long and var- ied life, the eft often sheds its skin like the snake; it has a strange habit of swallowing its cast-off coat.

SUGGESTED READING— Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; also, readings on pages 170 and 185.

Lesson 48

The Newt Or Eft

LEADING THOUGHT— -The newts are born in the water and at first have gills. Later they live on land and have lungs for breathing air; then they go back to the water and again develop the power of breathing the oxygen contained in water; they also develop a keeled tail.

METHOD — The little, orange eft or redspotted salamander may be kept in an aquarium which has in it an object, such as a stone or a clump of moss, which projects above the water. For food it should be given small earthworms or leaves cov- ered with plant lice. In this way it may be studied at leisure.

OBSERVATIONS — i . Look at the eft

closely. Is it all the same color? How many spots upon its back and what colors are they? Are there the same number of spots on both sides? Are there any spots or idots besides these larger ones? How does the eft resemble a toad?

2. Is the head the widest part of the body? Describe the eyes, the shape and color of the pupil and of the iris. How does the eft wink? Do you think it can see well?

3. Can you see the nostrils? How does the throat move and why?

4. Are both pairs of legs the same size?

How many toes on the front feet? How many toes on the hind feet? Does the eft toe in with its front feet like a toad?

5. Does it move more than one foot at a time when walking? Does it use the feet on the same side in two consecutive steps? After it puts forward the right front foot what foot follows next? Can it move backward?

6. Is the tail as long as the head and body together? Is the tail round or flat at the sides? How is it used to help the eft when traveling? Does the tail drag or is it lifted, or does it push by squirming?

7. How does the eft act when startled?

Does it examine its surroundings? Do you think it can see and is afraid of you?

8. Why do we find more of these crea- tures during wet weather? Why do people think they rain down?

9. What does the eft eat? How does it catch its prey? Does it shed its skin?

How many kinds of efts have you seen?

10. From what kind of egg does the eft hatch? When is this egg laid? How does it look? On what is it fastened?

Page 193 (PDF 219)

Reptiles

Yet when a child and barefoot, I more than once, at morn, Have passed, I thought, a whiplash imbraided in the sun?

When, stooping to secure it, it wrinkled, and was gone. — EMILY DICKINSON The animals in the reptile group have a covering of bony plates or scales. These animals vary greatly in size and shape and include such forms as snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles, and alligators. They make their homes in a great variety of places; the alligators, the crocodiles, and some of the snakes and turtles live in or near water, while many of the snakes and lizards are quite at home in desert regions.

If the teacher could bring herself to take as much interest as did Mother Eve in that " subtile animal/7 as the Bible calls the serpent, she might, through such interest, enter the paradise of the boyish heart instead of losing a paradise of her own. How many teachers, who have an aversion for snakes, are obliged to teach small boys whose pet diversion is cap- turing these living ribbons and bringing them into the schoolroom stowed away not too securely in pockets! In one of the suburban Brooklyn schools, boys of this stripe sought to frighten their teacher with their weird prisoners. But she was equal to the occasion, and surprised them by de- claring that there were many interesting things to be studied about snakes, and forthwith sent to the library for books which discussed these reptiles; and this was the beginning of a nature-study club of rare efficiency and enterprise.

There are abroad in the land many erroneous beliefs concerning snakes. Most people believe that they are all venomous, which is far from true. The rattlesnake still holds its own in rocky, mountainous places, and the moccasin haunts the bay- ous of the southern coast; however, in most localities, snakes are not only harm- less but are beneficial to the farmer. The superstition that if a snake is killed, its tail will live until sundown is general and has but slender foundation in the fact that with snakes, which are lower in their nerve-organization than mammals, the process of death is a slow one. Some peo- ple firmly believe that snakes spring or jump from the ground to seize their prey, which is quite false since no snake jumps clear of the ground as it strikes, nor does it spring from a perfect coil. Nor are F. Harper Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. Alli- gators may reach a length of twelve feet; they live in or about rivers and swamps of tropical and sub-tropical regions. Their food consists chiefly of fish, mammals, and waterfowl. They are unique among reptiles in being able to produce a loud bellowing noise. In the past, alligators have been ruthlessly slaughtered and even now need more protection snakes slimy; on the contrary, they are covered with perfectly dry scales. But the most general superstition of all is that a snake's thrusting out its tongue is an act of animosity; the fact is, the tongue is a sense organ and is used as an insect uses its feelers or antennae, and the act is also supposed to aid the creature in hearing; thus when a snake thrusts out its tongue, it is simply trying to find out about its surroundings and what is going on.

Snakes are the only creatures able to swallow objects larger than themselves.

Page 194 (PDF 220)

F. Harper .and A. A. Wright Alligator eggs. More than 30 eggs may be laid by one jemale alligator; they are placed above water level in a nest of swamp vegeta- tion. When hatching, the young alligators are about 8 inches long. Turtle eggs, often- laid in the same pile of vegetation, are shown in the foreground This is rendered possible by the elasticity of the body walls, and by the fact that snakes have an extra bone hinging the upper to the lower jaw, allowing them to spread widely; the lower jaw also separates at the middle of its front edge and spreads apart sidewise. In order to force a creature into a " bag " so manifestly too small, a special mechanism is needed; the teeth supply this by pointing backward, and thus assisting in the swallowing. The snake moves by literally walking on the ends of its ribs, which are connected with the crosswise plates on its lower side; each of these crosswise plates has the hind edge projecting down so that it can hold to an object. Thus, the graceful, noiseless prog- ress of the snake is brought about by many of these crosswise plates worked by the movement of the ribs.

Some species of snakes simply chase their prey, striking at it and catching it in the open mouth, while others, like the pilot black snake, wind themselves about their victims and crush them to death.

Snakes can live a long time without food; many instances on record show that they have been able to exist a year or more without anything to eat. In our northern climate they hibernate in winter, going to sleep as soon as the weather becomes cold and not waking up until spring. As snakes grow, they shed their skins; this occurs only two or three times a year.

The crested flycatcher adorns its nest with these phantom snakes.

SUGGESTED READING — Along Nature's Trails, by Lillian C. Athey; Animals in the Sun, by William W. Robinson; Back- yard Exploration, by Paul G. Howes; Desert Neighbors, by Edith M. Patch and Carroll L. Fenton; Nature — by Seaside and Wayside, by Mary G. Phillips and Julia M. Wright, Book 4, Our Earth and Its Life; Our Great Outdoors, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes, by C. W. G. Eifrig; Out-of-Doors — A Guide to Na- ture, by Paul B. Mann and George T. Hastings; The Pond Book, and Fields and Fencerows, both by Walter P. Porter and Einar A. Hansen; Reptiles and Am- phibians, Tli err Habits and Adaptations, by Thomas Barbour; Reptiles of North America, Snakes of the World, Reptiles of the World, The Book of Living Rep- tiles, all by Raymond L. Ditmars; Snakes Alive and How They Live, by Clifford H. Pope; The Stir of Nature, by William H. Carr; see also Bibliography. THE GARTER OR GARDEN SNAKE A chipmunk, or a sudden-whirring quail, Is startled by my step as on I fare. A gartersnafee across the dusty trail, Glances and — is not there. — RILEY Garter snakes can be easily tamed, and are ready to meet friendly advances half way. A handsome yellow-striped, black garter lived for four years beneath our porch and was very friendly and unafraid of the family. The children of the campus

Page 195 (PDF 221)

Reptiles

Garter snakes made it frequent visits., and never seemed to be weary of watching it; but the birds objected to it very much, although it never attempted to reach their nests in the vine above. The garter snakes are the most common of all, in our northeastern states. They vary much in color; the ground color may be olive, brown, or black, and down the center of the back is usually a yellow, green, or whitish stripe, usually bordered by a darker band of ground-color. On each side is a similar stripe, but not so brightly colored; some- times the middle stripe and sometimes the side stripes are broken into spots or absent; the lower side is greenish white or yellow. When fully grown this snake is two to two and one-half feet in length. The garters are likely to congregate in numbers in places favorable for hibernation, like rocky ledges or stony sidehills. Here each snake finds a safe crevice, or makes a burrow which sometimes extends a yard or more underground. During the warm days of Indian summer, these winter hermits crawl out in the middle of the day and sun themselves, retiring again to their hermitages when the air grows chilly toward night; and when the cold weather arrives, they go to sleep and do not awaken until the first warm days of spring; then, if the sun shines hot, they crawl out and bask in its welcome rays.

After the warm weather comes, the snakes scatter to other localities more favorable for finding food, and thus these hibernating places are deserted during the summer. The banks of streams and the edges of woods are places which furnish snakes their food, which consists of earthworms, insects, toads, salamanders, frogs, etc. The young are born from late July to mid September and are about six inches long at birth; one mother may have in her brood from eleven to fifty snakelings; she often stays with them only a few hours.

There are many stories about the way the young ones run down the mother's throat in case of attack; but as yet no scientist has seen this act or placed it

Page 196 (PDF 222)

A. A. and A. H. Wright Common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis on record. The little snakes shift for their own food, catching small toads, earth- worms, and insects. If it finds food in plenty, the garter snake will mature in one year. Hawks, crows, skunks, weasels, and other predacious animals seem to find the garter snake attractive food.

SUGGESTED READING -— Holiday Hill, by Edith M. Patch; also, readings on page

Lesson 49

The Garter Or Garden Snake

LEADING THOUGHT — The garter snake is a common and harmless little creature and has many interesting habits which are worth studying.

METHOD — A garter snake may be cap- tured and placed in a box with a glass cover and thus studied in detail in the schoolroom, but the lesson should begin with observations made by the children on the snakes in their native haunts.

OBSERVATIONS — - 1 . What are the colors and markings of your garter snake?

Do the stripes extend along the head as well as the body? How long is it?

2. Describe its eyes, its ears, its nostrils, and its mouth.

3. If you disturb it how does it act?

Why does it thrust its tongue out? What shape is its tongue?

4. In what position is the snake when it rests? Can you see how it moves? Look upon the lower side. Can you see the little plates extending crosswise? Do you think it moves by moving these plates? Let it crawl across your hand, and see if you can tell how it moves.

5. What does the garter snake eat? Did you ever see one swallow a toad? A frog? Did it take it head first or tail first?

6. Where does the garter spend the winter? How early does it appear in the spring?

7. At what time of year do you see the young snakes? Do the young ones run down the throat of the mother for safety when attacked? Does the mother snake defend her young?

8. What enemies has the garter snake?

No life in earth or air or s£y; The sunbeams, broken silently, On the bared rocks around me lie, — Cold roclcs with half warmed lichens scarred, And scales of moss; and scarce a yard Away, one long strip, yellow-barred.

Lost in a cleft! Tis but a stride To reach it, thrust its roots aside, And lift it on thy stick astride!

Yet stay! That moment is thy grace!

For round thee, thrilling air and space, A chattering terror fills the place!

A sound as of dry bones that stir, In the dead valley! By yon fir The locust stops its noon-day whir!

The wild bird hears; smote with the sound, As if by bullet brought to ground On broken wing, dips, wheeling round!

The hare, transfixed, with trembling lip, Halts breathless, on pulsating hip, And palsied tread, and heels that slip.

Enough, old friend! — 'tis thou. Forget My heedless foot, nor longer fret The peace with thy grim castanet!

From " CROTALTJS

(The Rattlesnake)/' Bret Harte

Page 197 (PDF 223)

Reptiles

The Milk Snake Or Spotted Adder

The grass divides as with a comb,, a spotted shaft is seen, And then it closes at your feet, and opens farther on. — EMILY DICKINSON This is the snake which Is said to milk cows, a most absurd belief; it would not milk a cow if it could, and it could not if it would. It has never yet been induced to drink milk when in captivity; and if it were very thirsty, it could not drink more than two teaspoonfuls of milk at most; thus in any case, its depredations upon the milk supply need not be feared. Its object in frequenting milk houses and sta- bles is far other than the milking of cows, for it is an inveterate hunter of rats and mice and is thus of great benefit to the farmer. It is a constrictor, and squeezes its prey to death in its coils.

The ground color of the milk snake is pale gray, but it is covered with so many brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches, that they seem rather to form the ground color; the lower side is white, marked with square black spots and blotches. The snake attains a length of two and one-half to three feet when fully grown. Although it is commonly called the spotted adder, it does not belong to the adders at all, but to the family of the king snakes.

During July and August, the mother snake lays from seven to twenty eggs; they are deposited in loose soil, in moist rub- bish, in compost heaps, etc. The egg is a symmetrical oval in shape and is about one and one-eighth inches long by a half inch in diameter. The shell is soft and white, like kid leather, and the egg resem- bles a puffball. The young hatch nearly two months after the eggs are laid; mean- while the eggs have increased in size so that the snakelings are nearly eight inches long when they hatch. The saddle-shaped blotches on the young have much red in them. The milk snake is not venomous; it will sometimes, in defense, try to chew the hand of the captor, but the wounds it can inflict are very slight and heal quickly. SUGGESTED READING — Readings on page 194. LESSON 50

The Milk Snake Or Spotted Adder

LEADING THOUGHT — The milk snake is found around stables where it hunts for rats and mice; it never milks the cows.

METHOD — Although the snake acts fierce, it is perfectly harmless and may be captured in the hands and placed in a glass-covered box for a study in the school- room.

OBSERVATIONS-—!. Where is the milk

snake found? Why is it called milk snake?

Look at its mouth and see if you think it could possibly suck a cow. See if you can get the snake to drink milk.

A. A. and A. H. Wright Milk make Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum

Page 198 (PDF 224)

198 Animals

2. What does it live upon? How does it kill its prey? Can the milk snake climb a tree?

3. Where does the mother snake lay her eggs? How do the eggs look? How large are they? How long are the little snakes when they hatch from the egg?

Are they the same color as the old ones?

4. Describe carefully the colors and markings of the milk snake and explain how its colors protect it from observation. What are its colors on the underside?

5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its skin? Describe how it was done. How does the sloughed-off skin look? What bird usually puts snake skins around its nest?

I have the same objection to killing a snake that I have to the killing of any other animal, yet the most humane man I know never omits to kill one.

Aug. 5, 1853. The mower on the river meadows, when lie comes to open his hay these days, encounters some overgrown water adder, full of young (?) and bold in defense of its progeny, and tells a tale when lie comes home at night which causes a shudder to run through the village — how it came at him and he ran, and it pursued and overtooJc him, and he transfixed it with a pitch- fort and laid it on a cock of hay, but it revived and carne at him again. This is the story he tells in the shops at evening. The big snake is a sort of fabulous animal. It is always as big as a man's arm and of in- definite length. Nobody knows exactly how deadly is its bite but nobody is known to have been bitten and recovered. Irish- men introduced into these meadows for the first time, on seeing a snake, a creature which they have seen only in pictures be- fore, lay down their scythes and run as if it were the Evil One himself and cannot be induced to return to their work. They sigh for Ireland, where they say there is no venomous thing that can hurt you.

— Thoreau'S Journal

The Water Snake

Every boy who goes fishing knows the snake found commonly about milldams and wharves or on rocks and bushes near the water. The teacher will have accomA. A. and A. H. Wright Common water snake Natrix sipedon sipedon plished a great work, if these boys are made to realize that this snake is more interesting as a creature for study, than as an object to pelt with stones. The water snake is a dingy brown in color, with cross-bands of brown or reddish brown which spread out into blotches at the side. Its color is very protective as it lies on stones or logs in its favorite atti- tude of sunning itself. It is very local in its habits, and generally has a favorite place for basking and returns to it year after year on sunny clays.

This snake lives mostly upon frogs and salamanders and fish; however, it preys usually upon fish of small value, so it is of little economic importance. It catches its victims by chasing and seizing them in its jaws. It has a very keen sense of smell and probably traces its prey in this man- ner, something as a hound follows a fox. It is an expert swimmer, usually lifting the head a few inches above the water when swimming, although it is able to

Page 199 (PDF 225)

Reptiles

dive and remain below the water for a short time.

The water snake is a bluffer, and, when cornered, it flattens itself and strikes fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison and it can inflict only slight and harmless wounds. When acting as if it would " rather fight than eat," if given a slight chance to escape, it will flee to the water like a " streak of greased lightning," as any boy will assure you.

The water snake may attain a length of about four feet; but the usual size is two and one-half to three feet. The young do not hatch from eggs, but are born alive in August and September; they differ much in appearance from their parents as they are pale gray in color, with jetblack cross-bands. The young often number twenty-five to forty and are about eight inches long.

SUGGESTED READING — Along the Brook, by Raymond T. Fuller; Field Book of Ponds and Streams, by Ann H. Morgan; also, readings on page 194.

Lesson 51

The Water Snake

LEADING THOUGHT — The water snake haunts the banks of streams because its food consists of creatures that live in and about water.

METHOD — If water snakes are found in the locality, encourage the boys to capture one without harming it, and bring it to school for observation. However, as the water snake is very local in its habits, and haunts the same place year after year, it will be better nature-study to get the chil- dren to observe it in its native surroundings.

OBSERVATIONS— i. Where is the water

snake found? How large is the largest one you ever saw?

2. Why does the water snake live near water? What is its food? How does it catch its prey?

3. Describe how the water snake swims.

How far does its head project above the water when swimming? How long can it stay completely beneath the water?

4. Describe the markings and colors of the water snake. How do these colors protect it from observation? How do the young look? 5. Does each water snake have a favor- ite place to which it will usually go to sun itself?

6. Where do the water snakes spend the winter?

May 12, 1858.

Found a large water adder by the edge of Farmer's large mudhole, which abounds with tadpoles and frogs, on which it was probably feeding. It was sunning on the bank and would face me and dart its head toward me when I tried to drive it from the water. It is barred above, but indistinctly when out of the water, so that it appears almost uniformly dark brown, but in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are seen, very distinctly alternating with very dark-brown ones. The head was very flat and suddenly broader than the neck be- hind. Beneath, it was whitish and reddish flesh-color. It was about two inches in diameter at the thickest part. The inside of its mouth and throat was pink. They are the biggest and most formidable-look- ing snakes that we have. It was awful to see it wind along the bottom of the ditch at last, raising wreaths of mud amid the tadpoles, to which it must be a very sea- serpent. I afterward saw another, running under Sam Barrett's grist-mill, the same afternoon. He said that he saw a watersnake, which he distinguished from a black snake, in an apple tree near by, last year, with a young robin in its mouth, having taken it from the nest. There was a cleft or fork in the tree which enabled it to ascend.

— Thoreau'S Journal

Loading...

Table of Contents

Reading Preferences